Vedic age

 THE VEDIC AGE (RIG VEDIC AND

LATER VEDIC ) (c 1500–500 BCE):

Harappan culture was followed by another great civilisation and culture

known as Vedic culture. It is called Vedic Age as its reconstruction is

primarily based on using Vedic texts as sources. However,

archaeological sources have also supplemented the texts, though not

comprehensively. Indo-Aryans are believed to be the composers of

Vedic texts. The term ‘Indo-Aryans’ is basically a linguistic term and

refers to speakers of a sub group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-

European family of languages. Rig Veda composers describe themselves

as Arya (a cultural/ethnic term etymologically derived from ‘ar’

meaning to cultivate, literally meaning kinsmen or companion, in

Sanskrit it means favourably disposed new comers and later it implied

men of good family ‘noble’). There is still no consensus on the original

home of Aryans and different theories are postulated which further

continue the debate. The different theories are as follows:

First,European

Theory:Postulates,

Continent of Europe is the home land of

Aryans.

On the basis of comparative linguistics of

Greek, Latin, German, Gothic, Celtic, and

Sanskrit (Indo-European family of

languages), we find certain structural

similarities and cognates (similar related

words). For example, the Sanskrit words

matri and pitri are similar to the Latin

mater and pater. Similarly, Inar of the

Hittite (Turkey) language is similar to

Indra of the Vedas. Suryyas and

Maruttash of the Kassite (Mesopotamia)

inscriptions are equivalent of the Vedic

Surya and Marut.

The Indo-Aryans came to India from Eurasia, they were semi-nomadic people

and came from the plains of Eastern

Europe, especially the area north of Black

Sea.

European theory Supported By,

Sir William

Jones (1786),

Giles ,

Hungary.

Shroeder from

France,

P Nehring from

Steppes (South

Russia).

Morgan from

Western

Siberia.

Second,Central

Asian

Theory is Postulates that

Central Asia is the homeland of the

Aryans.

With the comparative study of the ‘Avesta’

(Iranian text) and the ‘Vedas’, one finds

striking linguistic relationship between

them of not just words but of concepts too.

The interchangeability between ‘h’ and ‘s’

and incredible consistency in this change

as hepta hindu (sapta sindhu), Ahura

(asura), haoma (soma), daha (dasa)

further substantiate the claim.

Central Asia theory Supported by Max Muller –

Central Asia,

E-Meyer

Herzfeld.

Third,Artic

Region

Theory is Postulates that

Homeland is the Northern Arctic region,

as the Vedas speak about 6 months each of

long days and long nights, which happens

only in the Arctic region.

Artic region theory Supported by Dr Bal

Gangadhar Tilak.

Forth,Tibet

Theory, Postulates that

Tibet is the original home of Aryans with

reference to the Vedas and other Aryan

texts, this theory Supported By

Swami

Dayanand

Saraswati.

Fifth, Indian

Theory: Postulates that

Indigenous to the subcontinent.

There are definite literary evidences in the

Vedas that the Aryans regarded the Sapta

Sindhu as their original home.

Sanskrit, more than any other European

language, contains the largest number of

original Indo-European vocables. It had

greater contact with the parent language of

the Aryans than any other European

languages.

The sacrificial rituals of the Vedic Aryans

point to their Indian origin. The

geographical data found in the Rig Veda fit in with the geography of Punjab and

the neighbouring regions. The river hymns

in the Rig Veda mention the names of the

rivers of the region. The flora and fauna

mentioned is mostly similar to the

Himalayan region.

Indian theory is supported by Dr

Sampurnanand

and AC Das,

Sapta Sindhu

Region by

Ganganath Jha,

 Brahmarishi

Desa (situated

in the

confluence of

the Ganges

and the

Yamuna) by LD Kala from

Kashmir,

RB Pandey from

Madhya

Pradesh.

The dominant and mostly accepted view is that instead of an Aryan

invasion, there was a series of Indo-Aryan Immigrations and they came

to the sub-continent as immigrants. The archaeological evidence of the

migrations comes from what is known as Andronovo culture situated in

Southern Siberia. This culture flourished in the second millennium BCE.

From here, people moved to the north of Hindukush (the area known as

Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex) and from here they entered

India. Evidences of horses, spoked wheels, fire cults, and cremation

(which formed important parts of Aryan life in India) during the period

between 1900 BCE and 1500 BCE, were found in these regions. Apart

from these, the artifacts and ceramics also suggest movement of people

from Central Asian region to South Asian region.

The earliest Aryans lived in the land of the (Sapta Sindhu) (Sindhu is

the river par excellence of the Aryans) and probably because of their

use of horse chariots and superior military technology, they could

establish their political dominance in the region. The region was drained

by the seven rivers, viz, the Indus (Sindhu), and its five tributaries,

namely, the Jhelum (Vatista), Beas (Vipasa), Chenab (Askini), Ravi

(Purushni), Sutlej (Sutudri), and the Saraswati (modern Ghaggar

Hakra), which covered mostly the areas of eastern Afghanistan,

Punjab, and fringes of western U P.The rare mention of the river

Yamuna (twice) and Ganga (only once) is pointer to the fact that Rig

Vedic Aryans had not inhabited that region as yet.

RIG VEDIC CULTURE (C 1500–1000 BCE) / EARLY VEDIC CIVILISATION:

The Vedic corpus is generally divided into Early Vedic and Later Vedic

texts. However, recently, on the basis of internal chronology, more

complex classification has been adopted, which divides the Vedic

literature as:

Early Vedic Literature/Rig Vedic Culture (c. 1500–1000 BCE):

Includes the Rig Veda Samhita and other texts of the family.

They are called ‘family books’ as their composition is

attributed to the families of certain seer poets, such as

Vishvamitra, Atri, Gritsamada, Vasishtha, and Bharadvaja.

Later Vedic Literature/Later Vedic Culture (c 1000–500 BCE):

Includes Books 1, 8, 9, and 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita, the

Samhitas of the Sama Veda, the Yajur and the Atharva Vedas

and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads attached to all

the four Vedas.

The word Veda has been derived from the root ‘vid’, which means to

know/knowledge. They hold the status of Shruti (which has been heard)

and have been transmitted orally for many centuries. Later, they were

written down, and the earliest surviving manuscript belongs to the 11th

century. There are four Vedas and every Veda generally has four parts:

Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. The four Vedas are: Rig Veda,Sama Veda,Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.

Vedic Literature:

Rig Veda:

The Rig Veda is a collection of 1,028 hymns, divided into 10 Mandals

(books). They are the earliest compositions and hence, they depict the

life of the Early Vedic people in India. Recently, the Rig Veda has been

included by the UNESCO in the list of literature signifying World

Human Heritage.

Earliest Mandals, ie, II to VII are called family books as they are

ascribed to particular families of seers/rishis.

Mandal VIII is Mostly relate to Kanva’s family,

Mandal IX is Compilation of Soma hymns,

Mandal I and X Are later additions and contains the

Purusashukta which explains the four varnas.

The priests related to the Rig Veda are Kotri or Motri, and the

Upveda of the Rig Veda is the Ayurveda.

Only surviving recension of the Rig Veda is the Shakala shakha.

Saam Veda:

The Sama Veda is the collection of verses mostly taken from the Rig Veda, but arranged in a poetic form to facilitate singing. It is a collection

of 1,810 melodies, and also contains the famous Dhrupada raga, later

sung by Tansen. The Upveda of the Sama Veda is the (Gandharva

Veda). Recensions (Shakhas) of the Sama Veda are Kauthuma,

Jaiminiya (Talavakara), and Ranayaniya.

Yajur Veda:

The Yajur Veda deals with the procedure for the performance of

sacrifices. The texts are further divided into:

First,Shukla Yajur Veda/White Yajur Veda/Vajasaneya (contains

only the Mantras) It contains the Madhyandina and Kanva

recensions.

Second,Krishna Yajur Veda/Black Yajur Veda (contains both mantras

and prose explanations/ commentary).

It contains the Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya, and

Kapishthala recensions. The Upveda of the Yajur Veda is the

Dhanur Veda.

Atharva Veda:

The Atharva Veda is a collection of magic spells and charms to ward off

the evil spirits and diseases.

It is the last Veda and is considered a non-Aryan work divided into 20

kandas (books), with 711 hymns. It contains the Gopatha Brahmana.

The Shaunaka and Paippalada are the recensions of the Atharva Veda.

The Upveda of the Atharva Veda is the Shilpa Veda.

Brahmanas:

The Brahmanas describe the rules for the performance of sacrificial

ceremonies. They, however, explain the hymns of the Vedas in an

orthodox manner. Each Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The

most important Brahmana is the Satpatha Brahmana, which is attached

to the Yajur Veda and is the most exhaustive. It recommends ‘one

hundred sacred paths’.

Aranyakas:

They are called the ‘forest books’ as they were written mainly by

hermits living in the jungles for their pupils. They deal with mysticism

and philosophy and oppose sacrifice. They emphasise meditation and

are considered to be the concluding portion of the Brahmanas, and

interpret rituals in a philosophical way.

Upanishads:

The literal meaning of ‘Upanishad’ is ‘to sit near someone’. There are

108 Upanishads, of which 13 are the most prominent. The Upanishads

dwell on the ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’, and focus a lot on the

philosophy about life, universe, self, body, sacrifice, etc. They emphasise that the knowledge of the self or atman should be acquired

and that the relation of the atman with the Brahman should be properly

understood.

The Mandukyopanishad “Satyamev jayate ” is the largest of all

Upanishads.

The Chhandogya Upanishad Clearly refers to the first three

ashrams and discusses the types of marriage (mainly two).

Anuloma marriage – The marriage of a man in his own varna

or below his varna. It is the most accepted and common form

of marriage in the society.

Pratiloma marriage – The marriage of a girl/woman in a

varna lower than her own, deemed rare and not sanctioned by

the Vedas.

Vedanta:

Vedanta literally signifies the ‘end of the Vedas’, as they reveal the final

aim of the Vedas. They condemn sacrifices and ceremonies and denote

the last phase of the Vedic period.

Vedanga:

The word ‘Vedanga’ means the ‘limbs of the Vedas’. They are the

supplementary texts that aid in the proper recitation and understanding

of the Vedas. However, these do not qualify as Shruti as they are

considered of human origin (not revealed by the gods) and are written in

the form of Sutras. Sutras are very short condensed statements that are

used to express varied ideas. There are six Sutras. They are:

Shiksha (Phonetics),

Kalpa (Ritualistic science),

Jyotisha (Astronomy),

Vyakaran (Grammar),

Nirukta (Etymology),

Chhanda (Metrics),

The Kalpasutra is further divided into: shrauta, grihya and dharma Shastra,

Shrautasutra: concerned with Vedic sacrifices that require

three or more fires.

Grihyasutra: concerned with comparatively simpler domestic

sacrifices, which require only one fire. It includes rituals

pertaining to crucial life stages (Samskaras) such as

Upanayana (initiation), Vivaha (marriage), and Antyeshti

(funerary practices).

Dharmasutra: concerned with the rituals’ Dharma.

Puranas:

The word ‘puranas’ literally means ‘old’. They were the religious

sectarian literature of later times (around 4th 6th centuries), but have a

well-defined perception of the past traditions. They reflect the

Brahmanical social and religious values and also shed light on the

emergence and development of Hindu religious practices. The Puranas

generally discuss five topics in the time span of four ages/yugas (Satya,

Treta, Dvapara, and Kali):

Sarga (Deals with the creation of the world),

Pratisarga (Recreation),

Manvantaras (Periods of the various Manus),

Vamsha (Genealogies of the gods and rishis),

Vamshanucharita (Texts relating to royal dynasties, both the

Suryavanshis—who claimed their descent from the Sun—and

Chandravanshis—who claimed their descent from the Moon).

Traditionally, the Puranas are considered to be composed by

Vyasa and it is commonly accepted that the four yugas make up

a mahayuga, that 1000 mahayugas make a kalpa, that and

every kalpa is further divided into 14 manvantaras which are

presided over by a specific Manu. Each Yuga is periodically

destroyed and again, the recreation of world occurs with the

cyclical decline and revival of Dharma.

The Puranas are further divided into 18 Mahapuranas (great

Puranas such as Brahma, Vishnu, Narada, Bhagavata, Padma,

Garuda, Varaha, Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Shiva, Skanda, Agni, Vamana, etc.) and numerous Upapuranas (secondary Puranas).

Some Puranas such as the Brahma, Matsya, Harivamsha,

Vishnu, Brahmanda, and Vayu provide useful information on

historical dynasties (of Haryankas, Shishunagas, Nandas,

Mauryas, Shungas — till the Guptas). They also contain

detailed accounts of historical geography such as mountains,

rivers, etc.

Dharamshastra:

They are the Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with Dharma (code of

conduct that conceptually signifies ‘a righteous moral law’ which is in

consonance with the universal natural law). Dharma also refers to the

fulfillment of Purusharthas (life goals) such as Dharma (righteous

conduct), Artha (material well-being), Kama (sensual pleasure), and

Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death). The

Dharmashastras are further subdivided into Dharmasutras (composed

during c 600 300 BCE) and Smritis (composed during c 200 BCE 900 CE).

They recognise three sources of Dharma, namely, the Vedas (Shruti),

Smriti (that which is remembered) texts, and Shistachara (good

mannerisms and practices of decent cultured people). A person’s

Dharma was dependent on many factors such as gender, marital status,

varna, and ashram. Out of the four varnas, three varnas, ie,

Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered Dvija (twice

born, as they had the right to the sacred thread ceremony considered

akin to second birth), while the Shudras were burdened with many civil

disabilities.

The four ashrams dividing the life of a dvija male were:

Brahmacharya (Celibate studenthood),

Grihastha (Household caretaker),

Vanaprastha (Partial renunciation) and

Sanyasa (Complete renunciation).

It should be noted that the different ashram stages were not followed

rhetorically by all and it was not even applicable to women or shudras.

Epics:

The two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are part of

both oral and written traditional history .The link between the Puranas

and the epics is that the heroes and clans who are the actors in the epics

are the descendants of Manu’s progeny. The two epics were clearly

aware of each other as the Mahabharata has a section called

Ramopakhyana, detailing the story of Rama, and the Ramayana

mentions the Kurus and, Hastinapur but does not mention the

Mahabharata war.

Comperision of Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Mahabharata was Roughly composed between

C 400 BCE−400CE while ramayana

Roughly composed between c

400 BCE−300CE.

The Mahabharata is said to

be composed by Ved Vyasa

and consists of 18 Parvas

(books) and has around 1

lakh verses. It is considerably longer than

Ramayana.

Ramayana is considered as the

Adi-Kavya (first conscious

poetry) composed by Valmiki

and it consists of seven Kandas

(books) having around 24,000 verses. It is much shorter than

the Mahabharata, despite later

additions.

Mahabharata,Traditionally, the war is

believed to have happened

in the Dvapara yuga. But,

historians consider the

events and social character

of the Mahabharata

corresponding to an earlier

stage of development than

the Ramayana, as the

Mahabharata setting

pertains to the Indo-

Gangetic divide and upper

Ganga valley.

Ramayana,Traditionally, it is considered

that Rama lived in the Treta

yuga, ir,earlier than the

Mahabharata. But, since the

setting of Ramayana shifted

eastwards to the middle Ganga

Valley, and the language of the

Ramayana is more polished and

its concepts more closely related

to later societies, historians

consider it of a later stage than

the Mahabharata.

Social life of Rig Vedic Aryans:

Rig Vedic society was a tribal society and its people lived a semi-

nomadic life. Aryan tribes were called Janas. Their chief (rajan) was

known as the Gopati or Gopa (protector of cows), and the chief queen

was called the Mahisi. The Janas often had conflicts with the Panis,

who used to hide the cattle of Aryans in the forest and were thus

deemed the enemies of Aryans. In order to get their cattle back, the

Vedic God ‘Indra’ was invoked and many battles known as Gavisthi,

Gaveshana, Goshu, or Gavyat (to search for cows) were fought between

the Aryans and the Panis.

The society’s political structure was somewhat similar to the monarchial

form, but the Gopati’s office was not hereditary and he was selected

among the clan’s men. The society was not divided on caste lines and

even the Rajans, the Purohits, the artisans, etc., were part of the clan

networks. Occupation was not based on birth. Members of a family

could adopt different occupations. This is indicated by the following

verse in the Rigveda: “I am a poet, my father is a physician, and my mother grinds grain upon the stone. Striving for wealth, with varied

plans, we follow our desires like cattle.”

However, certain differences did exist during the period. Varna or

colour was the basis of initial differentiation between the Vedic and

non-Vedic people. The Vedic people were fair whereas the non-Vedic

indigenous people were dark in complexion and spoke a different

language. Authors of Rig Veda distinguished themselves from other

groups whom they called “dasyus” or “ dasas”. The dasas were also

referred as a-vrata (who do not obey the ordinances of the gods) and a-

kratu (those who do not perform sacrifices).

Thus, even though a socially organised “varna system” was not

prevalent and tribal elements were stronger in the society, yet Rig Vedic

society can still not be considered a totally egalitarian society as social

stratification was based on the division of labour and gender. The only

mention of the four varnas was found in the Purusashukta of the tenth

mandal of the Rig Veda, which makes one conclude that the varna

system was probably introduced at the end of the Rig Vedic age and that

there was social mobility and the absence of strict social hierarchy.

However, the Rig Vedic people were familiar with slavery.

All the social units were based on brotherhood. Kula (Family) was the

basic social unit and Kulapa was the head of the family. Largely, there

were joint families in the Rig Vedic age, which followed the patrilineal

system. The family was part of a larger grouping, called vis or clan. One

or more than one clans made jana or tribe. The jana was the largest

social unit.

In the Rig Veda, no desire is expressed for daughters, though the desire

for children and cattle is a recurrent theme in the hymns. The society

was patriarchal in nature, though the women had important positions in

the society since they were educated and had access to the assembly.

They composed hymns and received Upanayana. Women attended the

meetings of the Vidatha. Girls were free to choose their life partners.

There are no instances of child marriage, sati, or purdah in the Rig

Veda. There were few instances of levirate (marrying the husband’s

younger brother on the death of husband) and widow remarriage.

Marriage was usually monogamous, though some references to polygyny and polyandry are also found in the Rig Veda.

There is no mention of any officer for administering justice, but Rig

Vedic Society was not an ideal society as there were cases of theft and

burglary. Military technique was much advanced as they possessed

chariots driven by horses. The Aryans were engaged in two types of

battles:

With pre-Aryans (probably referred to them as Dasas/Dasyus.)

Amongst themselves: There have been mentions of two such

battles —

A battle occurred between a Bharata King Divodasa

(winner), and Dasa ruler Shambara.

The ‘battle of ten kings’(dasharajna): This was fought

between the Bharata chief Sudas, grandson of Divodasa

(winner) on one side, and ten other tribes including the

famous five tribes (Panch-jana), namely, the Yadu,

Turvasha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu. Later, the Bharatas

joined hands with the Purus to form the Kuru tribe.

Some of the important functionaries of Rig Vedic Societies were :

Purohit (priest),

Senani (leader of an army),

Gramini (leader of a village).

Some important tribal assemblies of this period were:

Sabha:Smaller body meant for elites (exclusive body), Samiti:Broad-based folk assembly, presided over by the Rajan,

Vidatha:Tribal assembly with diverse functions and Gann: Assembly or troop.

Rig Vedic Economy:

Since the Rig Vedic society was a pastoral society, cattle rearing was

their dominant activity. The chief measure of wealth was cattle and a

wealthy man was known as Gomat, that is to say, one who owned many

cattle. A large number of words are derived from the word ‘gau’,

meaning cow.

Evidence of trade and commerce is meagre, and there was no concept of

private property based on land ownership. The clan as a whole enjoyed

rights over the resources. The unit of currency was niskha, which was

made of gold. Barter was the model of exchange and the cow was an

important unit of value. There was no regular revenue system and the

kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute (bali) of subjects and

bounty won in a battle.

Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the

Rig Vedic society. Such exchanges, known as ‘prestations’, were done

not on an individual level but at the group level. Apart from economic

goods, this also included the exchange of other things such as women,

courtesies, hospitality, and military assistance. The priests received

dana (gifts) and dakshina (sacrificial offering) for their ritualistic

services. Shifting agriculture was practiced and fire was used to burn

down forest cover and the patch of land thus cleared was then sown.

Apart from yava or barley, no other grain is mentioned. The Rig Vedic

people used wooden plough (phala, langala, and ‘sira’). Vedic god

Indra is also described as Urvarajit (winner of fertile fields), and there

are also references to Kshetrapati (guardian deity of agricultural fields).

They did not use iron technology, but were familiar with copper. Also,

there have been very less references to metallurgical activities. A lot of

other crafts such as cart-making, carpentry, tanning, sewing, and

weaving, find mention, though the chariot-maker enjoyed a special

status in Rig Vedic society. Chariot-racing and dice gambling were

popular pastimes.

Rig Vedic Religion:

There was neither temple nor idol worship in the Early Vedic age. The

Rig Veda reflects naturalistic polytheism (similar to primitive animism)

as they venerated natural forces like the wind, rain, water, thunder, etc.

Very few temple divinities were venerated. They generally worshipped

in the open air through yajnas. Vedic texts refer to meat eating and also

the sacrificial killing of animals except the cow, which was considered

aghnya (not to be killed). A peculiar case of Henotheism or Kathenotheism is found in Rig Vedic religion, wherein the deity being

invoked in a particular hymn is considered the supreme god. Some of

the deities worshipped by the Rig Vedic People were as follows:

Indra:

Greatest god of the Aryans,

250 hymns are attributed to him,

Called Purandhar (Breaker of forts), Maghavan (bounteous), and

Vritrahan (Slayer of Vritra, chaos).

Agni:

Second most important god; the god of fire

200 hymns are attributed to him,

The son of earth and heaven,

Intermediary between gods and men.

Varuna:

Third most important god; the god of personified water

Looked after rita or the cosmic order,

Ethically, the highest at all Rig Vedic Gods.

Soma:

God of plants/king of gods/special god of the Brahmanas,

All hymns of the 11 mandal assigned to him,

Aryans knew Himalaya (Munjavat) as the source of the soma plant,

Considered the wise god who inspires the poets to compose hymns.

Yama:

Lord of death.

Rudra:

Amoral archer god whose arrows brought diseases

Lived in the mountains, and the guardian of healing herbs,

Resembled Greek God Apollo and identified as Protosiva.

Pushan:

The god of jungle paths, herdsmen, and cattle,

Aided the transformation of day to night and vice versa.

Surya :Son of Dyaus, who drives away darkness and spreads light.

 Savitri : Solar deity to whom the famous Gayatri Mantra is attributed to in the third mandal of the Rig Veda.

Aditi : Goddess of eternity and the mother of the gods, invoked to bestow freedom from evil, harm, and sickness.

Prithvi : Earth goddess.

Vishnu : Benevolent god, but mentioned very infrequently in the Rig Veda.

Marutas :The son’s of Rudra, who personified storms,

Vayu : God of wind.

Ashvins :The twin Gods of war and fertility.

પરોઢ usha :Goddess of dawn, and is mentioned around 300 times in the RigVeda hymns.

Sinivali: Bestows children.

Demi-gods:

Gandharvas as (Divine musicians),

Apasaras as (Mistress of Gods),

Vishwadevas as (Intermediate deities),

Aryaman as (Guardian of compacts and marriages).

Terms used in Rig Vedic Age and their Meaning, Godhuli Samgava is Measure of time (Dusk) Morning,

Gavyuti as a Measure of distance,

Duhitri as a Daughter who milk cows,

Gotra as A kinship Units,

Vish as A clan/people in general,

Gana as a Lineage,

Grama as a Village,

Gauri/gavala as Buffalo,

Gojit as a Winner of cows/Hero,

Vap meaning is To sow,

Srini meaning is Sickle,

Ksehtra is a Cultivated field,

Urvara as Fertile fields,

Dhanya known as Cereals,

 Gharita as Butter,

Soma/Sura is intoxicating drink,

Goghna, Guest; one who is fed on cattle.

LATER VEDIC CULTURE

AND CIVILISATION (C1000-

500 BCE):

The Later Vedic Age is characterised by more complexities in social,

political, and economic life. In terms of the political context, the tiny

tribal settlements of the Vedic period were replaced by comparatively

stronger kingdoms, while royal power increased. The core geographical

area of the Rig Vedic texts corresponds to Eastern Afghanistan, Punjab,

and western U.P., whereas the core geographical area of Later Vedic

texts corresponds to the Kuru–Panchala Region, which comprised the

Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga Valley.

The term ‘Rashtra’ first appeared in this period. The wars were no

longer fought for cows, but for territories. The predominantly pastoral

society of Early Vedic times had become agricultural. Chiefs grew at the

expense of the tribal peasantry and handsomely rewarded the priests

who helped them in maintaining their authority. It should be noted that

even in Later Vedic times, the king did not possess a standing army and

tribal units were mustered in times of war. Traces of election of the

chief or king appear in late Vedic texts, but hereditary kingship was

emerging. The king’s influence was further strengthened by ritual

enactments such as the Rajasuya (which was royal consecration and

conferred supreme power on the king), Vajapeya (literally meaning drink of strength; it had a chariot race in which royal chariot was made

to win against all kinsmen), and Aswamedha (unquestioned control over

an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted). It was slowly

turning in its later stages to an age of the ‘janapadas‘ instead of ‘janas’.

The king was usually a kshatriya and the office of the monarch was

made almost hereditary. The king was addressed by different names

across different regions.

Later Vedic Society:

One of the most important changes from the Rig Vedic society was the

rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of the varna system.

The Later Vedic society was clearly divided into four varnas:

Brahmanas, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Another

important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or the

different stages of life. Together with varna, Later Vedic society came

to be known as Varna-ashrama-dharma society. The upper three classes

known as Dvija (twice born) discriminated against both Shudras and

Chandalas. Caste exogamy was extensively practiced and a rigid social

hierarchy developed, which restricted the social mobility of the earlier

period. The increasing cult of sacrifices added enormously to the power

of the Brahmanas. Education was largely confined to dvija castes and

began with the investiture ceremony (Upanayana), although women were also initiated at times. Assemblies were then dominated by nobles

and affluent men and women were no longer permitted to attend

assemblies. Sabha and Samities continued to hold ground, though not

like the Rig Vedic Age, but the vidatha completely disappeared.

The Later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint family,

with three or four generations living together. The rows of hearths

discovered at Atranjikhera and at Ahichchhtra (both in western Uttar

Pradesh) show that these were meant for communal feeding or for

cooking the food of large families. In the family, a patrimonial

(authority of father) system developed and women were generally

confined to household chores and subordinate positions. As compared

to the Rig Vedic age, women lost importance in the society and there

have been references to rare instances of sati and child marriage. In one

text, women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In

another text, a daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows.

The institution of gotra appeared in the Later Vedic culture. Literally it means ‘cow pen’ or the place where cattle belonging to whole clan are

kept, but in course of time it meant descent from a common ancestor.

Marriage between persons of the same gotra was forbidden. There were

legendary seers, such as, Kashyapa, Vashista, Bhrigu, Gautama,

Bhardwaj, Attri, Vishwamitra, and Agastya, after whom the gotras were

named. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas took the same gotra names of the

families of Brahmans who traditionally performed their domestic

rituals. There is mention of the Chandrayana Penance for men marrying

women of the same gotra. Ashrama or the four stages of life were

prescribed, but were not religiously followed.

Later Vedic Age Economy:

The Later Vedic culture is also called as PGW–Iron Phase culture, as a

particular kind of pottery (painted grey ware) was used during that

phase. The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the

Later Vedic period was the beginning of the use of iron, which was

introduced around 1000 BCE and is mentioned as Krishna Ayas/Shyama

Ayas. The Rig Vedic people knew of a metal, called ayas, which was

either copper or bronze.

The society was largely rural. However, towards the end of the period,

there are traces of the beginning of urbanism (as nagar in the sense of a

town is mentioned in the Taittiriya Aranyaka). Agriculture emerged as

the chief means of livelihood of the Later Vedic people. The forests

were cleared by burning the trees, which is also mentioned in the

Satapatha Brahamana (ruler Videha Madhava burned the forests

between river Saraswati to river Sedanira or Gandak). Cultivation was

done by the plough. Mixed farming (cultivation along with herding)

was one of the prime occupations of the Later Vedic people. The land was still communally owned over which the ‘vish’ (clan) had many

participatory rights, but it was recognised as property and the head of

the household who owned the land was termed as ‘Grahpati’. Rice

(Vrihi) and wheat (Godhuma) became the staple diet of the people and

lentils were also grown. Also, with the beginning of food production,

agricultural produce began to be offered in the rituals. The items of

dana and dakshina included cooked rice. Tila, from which the first

widely used vegetable food-oil was derived increasingly, came to be

used in rituals.

Diverse arts and crafts were practiced in the Later Vedic period. Tin,

lead, silver, Iron, gold, bronze, and copper were known to Later Vedic

people. There were probably good smiths and smelters as a lot of

copper objects have been found at PGW Sites. People had obtained

knowledge of glass manufacturing too. Shresthins indicate the guilds or

organisation of merchants. Exchange was still via barter, but Niskha was

used as a convenient unit of value although not as a typical currency.

Wagons drawn by oxen were probably the most used mode of transport.

The Later Vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery:

Painted Grey Ware,

Black and Red Ware,

Black-slipped Ware and

Red Ware.

Unlike the Rig Vedic age where only voluntary offerings were taken and

per se no revenue collection was done, in the Later Vedic age, collection

of taxes and tributes was made mandatory and were done by

Sangrihitri. It is equally interesting to note that the Vaishyas appear to

be the only tribute payers in Later Vedic times.

Later Vedic Age Religion:

The Later Vedic culture was focused on the centrality of the cult of

sacrifice. Sacrifice became more important and elaborate, and assumed

both public and domestic character. There was an increase in the

frequency and number of the yajnas, which generally involved the

killing of animals on a large scale and the destruction of cattle wealth.

This was probably the result of the growing importance of a class of

Brahmanas and their efforts to maintain their supremacy in the changing

society. These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in the

form of dana and dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were −

Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, Rajasuya, etc. The purpose of these yajnas was

two-fold. Firstly, it established the authority of the chiefs over the

people, and secondly, it reinforced the territorial aspect of the polity

since people from all over the kingdom were invited to these sacrifices.

Changes in the material life naturally resulted in a change in their

attitude towards gods and goddesses as well. The two most important

Rig Vedic Gods, Indra and Agni, lost their importance and instead of

them, Prajapati (the creator) became supreme. Some of the other minor

gods became prominent, such as Vishnu (conceived as the preserver

and protector of people) and Rudra (the god of animals). Idolatry

appears in late Vedic phase and just as the society was divided in the

later Vedic phase in terms of social classes, similarly some of the social

orders too adopted their own deities. For example, Pushan (who was

supposed to look after cattle) came to be regarded as the god of the

Shudras.

However, towards the end of Later Vedic age, a strong reaction began to

emerge against priestly domination, against cults and sacrifices,

especially in the land of Panchala and Videha where, around 600 BCE,

the Upanishads were compiled.

Key concept and their Source,

Gotra from Atharva Veda,

Purusashukta Hymn (Four-fold division of

society) sourced from

Rig Veda (Tenth

Mandala),

First three ashramas (Brahmacharya,

Garhasthya, Vanaprastha) sourced from

Chhandogya

Upanishad.

Four ashrams (Brahmacharya, Garhasthya,

Vanaprastha, Sannyas) sourced from

Jabala Upanishad,

Samsara (transmigration of soul) sourced from Brahadarankya Upanishad,

Sabha and Samiti as the twin daughters of

Prajapati sourced from

Atharva Veda,

’Satyamev Jayate’ from Mandukya

Upanishad,

Doctrine of ‘Trimurti’ from Maitrayani

Upanishad,

Mention of the ‘Great Flood’ sourced from Satpatha

Brahamana,

Kshatriyas’ precedence over Brahmanas Sourced from Atreya Brahamana,

Mention of the eastern and western seas in Satpatha

Brahmana,

Origin of the Universe mentioned in Rig Veda (Tenth

Mandala).

Do you Know?

Unlike Shruti texts (Vedas), Smriti (Remembered) texts

includes the Puranas, epics such as the Ramayana, the

Mahabharata, Vedanga, Nitishastra, and

Dharamashastra.

The Kali age is believed to start from the day Lord

Krishna died, about 20 years after the Mahabharata

war.

The Ramayana has many versions. Different versions

have different beginnings and endings, such as:

The Paumachariu of Vimalasuri in Prakrit is a

Jaina version, in which Ravana is killed by

Lakshmana, and not by Rama, as Rama, being a

true Jaina, embodies non-violence.

The Dasharatha Jataka in Pali (a Buddhist

version),

The Iramavataram in Tamil (by Kamban),

The Ramcharitmanas in Hindi (by Tulsidas).

There are primarily four families of languages spoken

in India:

Indo-European (spoken by around 75%): It

includes Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Urdu, Gujarati,

Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Sindhi, Nepali,

Kashmiri, etc.

Dravidian (spoken by around 22%): It includes

Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam, and Tulu.

Largely spoken in South India, except Gondi

(Central India), Brahui (Baluchistan, Pakistan),

and Malto (Rajmahal Hills, Eastern India).

Austro-Asiatic (spoken by around 1%): It

includes Khasi, Santhali, Mundari, Ho, Savara,

Kharia, etc.

Tibeto-Burmese (spoken by around 1%): It

includes Manipuri, Bodo, Tripuri, Garo, Lushai,

Sema, Karbi, Ao, Adi, Nissi, etc.

Classical Sanskrit refers to the language whose rules

were codified by Grammarian Panini in his famous

volume Ashtadhyayi.

Patanjali’s Mahabhasya is another important text of

Sanskrit grammar.

Tolkappiyam is the oldest surviving Tamil grammar.

Among the Dravidian languages, Tamil has the oldest

literature followed by Kannada.

Pali and Prakrit both, like Sanskrit, belong to the Indo-

Iranian branch of the Indo-European family.

Oldest surviving Prakrit grammar is Prakritaprakasha

of Vararuchi.

Magathi and Shauraseni are the dialects of Prakrit.