Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India: Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism: The rise and growth of Indian nationalism has been traditionally explained in terms of Indian response to the stimulus generated by the British Raj through creation of new institutions, new opportunities, resources, etc. In other words, Indian nationalism grew partly as a result of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial policies. In fact, it would be more correct to see Indian nationalism as a product of a mix of various factors: Worldwide upsurge of the concepts of nationalism and the right of self-determination initiated by the French Revolution, Indian Renaissance, Offshoot of modernisation initiated by the British in India, Strong reaction to British imperialist policies in India. Understanding of Contradictions in Indian and Colonial Interests: People came to realise that colonial rule was the major cause of India’s economic backwardness and that the interests of the Indians involved the interests of all sections and classes— peasants, artisans, handicraftsmen, workers, intellectuals, the educated, and the capitalists. The nationalist movement arose to take up the challenge of these contradictions inherent in the character and policies of colonial rule. Political, Administrative, and Economic Unification of the Country: The British rule in the Indian subcontinent extended from the Himalayas in the north to the Cape Comorin in the south and from Assam in the east to Khyber Pass in the west. While large areas of India had been brought under a single rule in the past—under the Mauryas or later under the Mughals— the British created a larger state than that of the Mauryas or the great Mughals. While Indian provinces were under ‘direct’ British rule, the princely states were under ‘indirect’ British rule. The British sword imposed political unity in India. A professional civil service, a unified judiciary and codified civil and criminal laws throughout the length and breadth of the country imparted a new dimension of political unity to the hitherto cultural unity that had existed in India for centuries. The necessities of administrative convenience, considerations of military defence, and the urge for economic penetration and commercial exploitation (all in British interests) were the driving forces behind the planned development of modern means of transport and communication such as railways, roads, electricity, and telegraph. From the nationalists’ point of view, this process of unification had a two-fold effect: First, The economic fate of the people of different regions got linked together; for instance, failure of crops in one region affected the prices and supply in another region. Second, Modern means of transport and communication brought people, especially the leaders, from different regions together. This was important for the exchange of political ideas and for mobilisation and organisation of public opinion on political and economic issues. Western Thought and Education: The introduction of a modern system of education afforded opportunities for assimilation of modern Western ideas. This, in turn, gave a new direction to Indian political thinking, although the English system of education had been conceived by the rulers in the self-interest of efficient administration. The liberal and radical thought of European writers like Milton, Shelley, John Stuart Mill, Rousseau, Paine, Spencer and Voltaire helped many Indians imbibe modern rational, secular, democratic, and nationalist ideas. The English language helped nationalist leaders from different linguistic regions to communicate with each other. Those among the educated who took up liberal professions (lawyers, doctors, etc.) often visited England for higher education. There they saw the working of modern political institutions in a free country and compared that system with the Indian situation where even basic rights were denied to the citizens. This ever-expanding English educated class formed the middle-class intelligentsia who constituted the nucleus for the newly arising political unrest. It was this section which provided leadership to the Indian political associations. Role of Press and Literature: The second half of the 19th century saw an unprecedented growth of Indian-owned English and vernacular newspapers, despite numerous restrictions imposed on the press by the colonial rulers from time to time. In 1877, there were about 169 newspapers published in vernacular languages and their circulation reached the neighbourhood of 1,00,000. The press while criticising official policies, on the one hand, urged the people to unite, on the other. It also helped spread modern ideas of self-government, democracy, civil rights, and industrialisation. The newspapers, journals, pamphlets, and nationalist literature helped in the exchange of political ideas among nationalist leaders from different regions. Rediscovery of India’s Past: The historical researches by European scholars, such as Max Mueller, Monier Williams, Roth and Sassoon, and by Indian scholars such as RG Bhandarkar, RL Mitra, and later Swami Vivekananda, created an entirely new picture of India’s past. This picture was characterised by well-developed political, economic, and social institutions, a flourishing trade with the outside world, a rich heritage in arts and culture and numerous cities. The theory put forward by European scholars, that the Indo-Aryans belonged to the same ethnic group from which other nations of Europe had evolved, gave a psychological boost to the educated Indians. The self-respect and confidence so gained helped the nationalists to demolish colonial myths that India had a long history of servility to foreign rulers. Progressive Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements: These reform movements sought to remove social evils which divided the Indian society; this had the effect of bringing different sections together and proved to be an important factor in the growth of Indian nationalism. Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia: British administrative and economic innovations gave rise to a new urban middle class in towns. According to Percival Spear, “The new middle class was a well-integrated all-India class with varied background but a common foreground of knowledge, ideas and values.... It was a minority of Indian society, but a dynamic minority.... It had a sense of unity of purpose and of hope.” This class, prominent because of its education, new position, and its close ties with the ruling class, came to the forefront. The leadership to the Indian National Congress in all its stages of growth was provided by this class. Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World: Rise of a number of nations on the ruins of the Spanish and Portuguese empires in South America, and the national liberation movements of Greece and Italy in general and of Ireland in particular deeply influenced the nationalist ranks. Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers: Racial myths of white superiority were sought to be perpetuated by the British through a deliberate policy of discrimination and segregation. Indians felt deeply hurt by this. Lytton’s reactionary policies such as reduction of maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from 21 years to 19 years (1876), the grand Delhi Durbar of 1877 when the country was in the severe grip of famine, the Vernacular Press Act (1878), and the Arms Act (1878) provoked a storm of opposition in the country. Then came the Ilbert Bill controversy. Ripon’s Government had sought to abolish “judicial disqualification based on race distinctions” and to give the Indian members of the covenanted civil service the same powers and rights as those enjoyed by their European colleagues. Ripon had to modify the bill, thus almost defeating the original purpose, because of the stiff opposition from the European community. It became clear to the nationalists that justice and fair play could not be expected where interests of the European community were involved. However, the organised agitation by the Europeans to revoke the Ilbert Bill also taught the nationalists how to agitate for certain rights and demands. Political Associations Before the Indian National Congress: The Indian National Congress was not the first political organisation in India. However, most of the political associations in the early half of the 19th century were dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements. They were local or regional in character. Through long petitions to the British Parliament most of them demanded— administrative reforms; association of Indians with the administration; and spread of education. The political associations of the second half of the 19th century came to be increasingly dominated by the educated middle class—the lawyers, journalists, doctors, teachers, etc.,—and they had a wider perspective and a larger agenda. Political Associations in Bengal: The Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha was formed in 1836 by associates of Raja Rammohan Roy. The Zamindari Association, more popularly known as the ‘Landholders’ Society’, was founded to safeguard the interests of the landlords. Although limited in its objectives, the Landholders’ Society marked the beginning of an organised political activity and use of methods of constitutional agitation for the redressal of grievances. The Bengal British India Society was founded in 1843 with the object of “the collection and dissemination of information relating to the actual condition of the people of British India... and to employ such other means of peaceful and lawful character as may appear calculated to secure the welfare, extend the just rights and advance the interests of all classes of our fellow subjects”. In 1851, both the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society merged into the British Indian Association. It sent a petition to the British Parliament demanding inclusion of some of its suggestions in the renewed Charter of the Company, such as: (i) establishment of a separate legislature of a popular character; (ii) separation of executive from judicial functions; (iii) reduction in salaries of higher officers; and (iv) abolition of salt duty, abkari, and stamp duties. These were partially accepted when the Charter Act of 1853 provided for the addition of six members to the governor general’s council for legislative purposes. The East India Association was organised by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 in London to discuss the Indian question and influence public men in England to promote Indian welfare. Later, branches of the association were started in prominent Indian cities. The Indian League was started in 1875 by Sisir Kumar Ghosh with the object of “stimulating the sense of nationalism amongst the people” and of encouraging political education. The Indian Association of Calcutta (also known as the Indian National Association) superseded the Indian League and was founded in 1876 by younger nationalists of Bengal led by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose, who were getting discontented with the conservative and pro-landlord policies of the British Indian Association. The Indian Association was the most important of pre- Congress associations and aimed to “promote by every legitimate means the political, intellectual and material advancement of the people.” It set out to: (i) create a strong public opinion on political questions; and (ii) unify Indian people in a common political programme. It protested against the reduction of age limit in 1877 for candidates of the Indian Civil Service examination. The association demanded simultaneous holding of civil service examination in England and India and Indianisation of higher administrative posts. It led a campaign against the repressive arms act and the vernacular press act. Branches of the association were opened in other towns and cities of Bengal and even outside Bengal. The membership fee was kept low in order to attract the poorer sections to the association. The association sponsored an all-India conference which first took place in Calcutta from December 28 to 30, 1883. More than hundred delegates from different parts of the country attended. So, in a way, the association was a forerunner of the Indian National Congress as an all-India nationalist organisation. It later merged with the Indian National Congress in 1886. Political Associations in Bombay: The Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded in 1867 by Mahadev Govind Ranade and others, with the object of serving as a bridge between the government and the people. The Bombay Presidency Association was started by Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, and KT Telang in 1885. Political Associations in Madras: The Madras Mahajan Sabha was founded in 1884 by M Viraraghavachari (also, Veeraraghavachariar), B Subramania Aiyer, and P Ananda- charlu. Pre-Congress Campaigns: The associations organised various campaigns before the Indian National Congress appeared on the scene. These campaigns were: (i) for imposition of import duty on cotton (1875) (ii) for Indianisation of government service (1878–79) (iii) against Lytton’s Afghan adventure (iv) against Arms Act (1878) (v) against Vernacular Press Act (1878) (vi) for right to join volunteer corps (vii) against plantation labour and against Inland Emigration Act (viii) in support of Ilbert Bill (ix) for an All-India Fund for Political Agitation (x) campaign in Britain to vote for pro-India party (xi) against reduction in maximum age for appearing in Indian Civil Service; the Indian Association took up this question and organised an all-India agitation against it, popularly known as the Indian Civil Service agitation. Summary: Factors in Growth of Modern Nationalism, Understanding of contradictions in Indian and colonial interests, Political, administrative, and economic unification of the country, Western thought and education, Role of press and literature, Rediscovery of India’s past—historical researches, Rise of middle-class intelligentsia, Impact of contemporary movements worldwide, Reactionary policies and racial arrogance of rulers. ● Political Associations Before Indian National Congress, 1836—Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha, Zamindari Association or Landholders’ Society, 1843—Bengal British India Society, 1851—British Indian Association, 1866—East India Association, 1870—Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, 1875—Indian League, 1876—Indian Association of Calcutta or Indian National Association, 1885—Bombay Presidency Association, 1884—Madras Mahajan Sabha.

Social

 Socio-Religious Reform Movements:  General Features: Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform: The dawn of the 19th century witnessed the birth of a new vision—a modern vision among some enlightened sections of the Indian society. This enlightened vision was to shape the course of events for decades to come and even beyond. This process of reawakening, sometimes, but not with full justification, defined as the ‘Renaissance’, did not always follow the intended line and gave rise to some undesirable by-products as well, which have become as much a part of daily existence in the whole of the Indian subcontinent as have the fruits of these reform movements. Impact of British Rule: The presence of a colonial government on Indian soil played a complex, yet decisive role in this crucial phase of modern Indian history. The impact of British rule on Indian society and culture was widely different from what India had known before. Most of the earlier invaders, who had come to India settled within its frontiers, were either absorbed by its superior culture or interacted positively with it and had become part of the land and its people. However, the British conquest was different. It came at a time when India, in contrast to an enlightened Europe of the 18th century affected in every aspect by science and scientific outlook, presented the picture of a stagnant civilisation and a static and decadent society. Social Conditions Ripe for Reform: Religious and Social Ills: Indian society in the 19th century was caught in a vicious web created by religious superstitions and social obscurantism. Hinduism had become steeped in magic and superstition. The priests exercised an overwhelming and, indeed, unhealthy influence on the minds of the people. Idolatry and polytheism helped to reinforce their position, and their monopoly of scriptural knowledge imparted a deceptive character to all religious systems. There was nothing that religious ideology could not persuade people to do. Depressing Position of Women: Social conditions were equally depressing. The most distressing was the position of women. Attempts to kill female infants at birth were not unusual. Child marriage was another bane of society. The practice of polygamy prevailed, and in Bengal, under Kulinism, even old men took very young girls as wives. Several women hardly had a married life worth the name, yet (at least among the higher castes) when their husbands died they were expected to commit sati, which Raja Rammohan Roy described as a “murder according to every shastra”. If they escaped this social coercion, they were condemned to a life of misery and humiliation. The Caste Problem: Another debilitating factor was caste. This entailed a system of segregation, hierarchically ordained on the basis of ritual status. At the bottom of the ladder came the untouchables or scheduled castes, as they came to be called later. The untouchables suffered from numerous and severe disabilities and restrictions. The system splintered people into numerous groups. In modern times it became a major obstacle in the growth of a united national feeling and the spread of democracy. It may also be noted that caste consciousness, particularly with regard to marriage, prevailed also among Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs who also practised untouchability, though in a less virulent form. Under a rigid caste system, social mobility was checked, social divisions grew, and individual initiative was thwarted. Above all, the humiliation of untouchability—so much a part of the caste system—militated against human dignity. Opposition to Western Culture: The establishment of colonial rule in India was followed by a systematic attempt to disseminate colonial culture and ideology as the dominant cultural current. Faced with the challenge of the intrusion of colonial culture and ideology, an attempt to reinvigorate traditional institutions and to realise the potential of traditional culture developed during the 19th century. New Awareness among Enlightened Indians: The impact of modern Western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power gave birth to a new awakening. There was an awareness that a vast country like India had been colonised by a handful of foreigners because of weaknesses within the Indian social structure and culture. For some time it seemed that India had lagged behind in the race of civilisation. This produced diverse reactions. Some English- educated Bengali youth developed a revulsion for Hindu religion and culture; they gave up old religious ideas and traditions and deliberately adopted practices most offensive to Hindu sentiments, such as drinking wine and eating beef. The response, indeed, was varied, but the need to reform social and religious life was a commonly shared conviction. During the last decades of the 19th century, the rising tide of nationalism and democracy also found expression in movements to reform and democratise the social institutions and religious outlook of the Indian people. Factors such as growth of nationalist sentiments, emergence of new economic forces, spread of education, impact of modern Western ideas and culture, and increased awareness of the world strengthened the resolve to reform. The socio-cultural regeneration of the India of the 19th century was occasioned by the colonial presence, but not created by it. Social and Ideological Bases of Reform: Middle-Class Base: The social base of the regeneration seen in the 19th century was the newly emerging middle class and the educated (both traditionally educated and the Western educated) intellectuals, but there was a significant contrast between the broadly middle-class ideals derived from a growing awareness of contemporary developments in the West, and a predominantly non-middle-class social base. The 19th century intelligentsia searched for its model in the European ‘middle class’, which, as it learnt through Western education, had brought about the great transformation in the West from medieval to modern times through movements like the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and democratic revolution or reform. However, the intelligentsia of the 19th century India did not grow from trade or industry (which were firmly under the control of British agencies); their roots lay in government service or the professions of law, education, journalism, or medicine— with which was often combined some connection with land in the form of the intermediate tenures. The Intellectual Criteria: What gave these reform movements an ideological unity were rationalism, religious universalism, and humanism. Rationalism was brought to judge social relevance. Raja Rammohan Roy firmly believed in the principle of causality linking the whole phenomenal universe and demonstrability as the sole criterion of truth. Akshay Kumar Dutt, while declaring that “rationalism is our only preceptor”, held that all natural and social phenomena could be analysed and understood by purely mechanical processes. They thus used a rational approach to study tradition; they evaluated the contemporary socio- religious practices from the standpoint of social utility and to replace faith with rationality. As a consequence, in the Brahmo Samaj, the infallibility of the Vedas was repudiated, while the Aligarh Movement emphasised reconciliation of Islamic teachings with the needs of the modern age. Syed Ahmed Khan went to the extent of emphasising that religious tenets were not immutable. Many of the intellectuals set aside the authority of religion and evaluated truth in any religion by the criteria of logic, reason, or science. According to Swami Vivekananda, the same method of investigation which applies to sciences should be the basis on which religion must justify itself. Although some reformers tended to appeal to faith and ancient authority to support their appeal, on the whole, a rational and secular outlook was very much evident in putting forward an alternative to prevalent social practices. Akshay Kumar Dutt, for instance, brought medical opinion to support his views against child marriage. Reference to the past was to be used only as an aid and an instrument. Neither a revival of the past nor a total break with tradition was envisaged. Though the reformers tried to reform their religions, there was a universalistic aspect to their religious perspective. Raja Rammohan Roy considered different religions as national embodiments of universal theism. He defended the basic and universal principles of all religions—such as the monotheism of the Vedas and the unitarianism of Christianity—while attacking the polytheism of Hinduism and trinitarianism of Christianity. Syed Ahmed Khan said that all prophets had the same ‘din’ (faith) and every country and nation had different prophets. The social reformers used the universalist perspective to contend with the influence of religious identity on the social and political outlook of the people which was indeed strong. A new humanitarian morality was embodied in the social reform movements, which included the notion that humanity can progress and has progressed, and that moral values are ultimately those values which favour human progress. The humanist aspect of the religious reform movements was to be seen in the emphasis on the individual’s right to interpret religious scriptures in the light of human reason and human welfare and in a general attack on priestly domination of religious practices. Religious reformation was an important but not the exclusive concern of these movements. Attention was focused on worldly existence and not on issues of salvation or other worldliness. Because of the strong religious element in social practices and the fact that religion was the dominant ideology of the times, it was not possible to undertake any social action without coming to grips with it. These movements took into their ambit the entire cultural existence, the way of life. The evolution of an alternative cultural-ideological system and the regeneration of traditional institutions were two concerns of these movements. These concerns were manifest in the attempts to reconstruct traditional knowledge, the use and development of vernacular languages, creation of an alternative system of education, defence of religion, efforts to regenerate Indian art and literature, the emphasis on Indian dress and food, attempts to revitalise the Indian systems of medicine, and to research the pre-colonial technology for its potential. Two Streams: The reform movements could broadly be classified into two categories—the reformist movements like the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj, the Aligarh Movement, and the revivalist movements like the Arya Samaj movement and the Deobandi movement. The reformist as well as the revivalist movement depended, to varying degrees, on an appeal to the lost purity of the religion they sought to reform. The only difference between one reform movement and the other lay in the degree to which it relied on tradition or on reason and conscience. Direction of Social Reform: The humanistic ideals of social equality and the equal worth of all individuals which inspired the newly educated middle class influenced the field of social reform in a major way. The social reform movements were linked to the religious reforms primarily because nearly all social ills like untouchability and gender-based inequity derived legitimacy from religion in one way or the other. In later years, though, the social reform movement gradually dissociated itself from religion and adopted a secular approach. Moreover, earlier the reform movements had a rather narrow social base, being limited to the upper and middle classes and upper castes who tried to balance their modernised views and the existing social conditions. But later on, the social reform movements penetrated the lower strata of society to revolutionise and reconstruct the social sphere. In the beginning, organisations such as the Social Conference, Servants of India Society, and the Christian missionaries were instrumental in social reform along with many enlightened individuals like Jyotiba Phule, Gopalhari Deshmukh, KT Telang, B M Malabari, DK Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, EV Ramaswami Naicker, and BR Ambedkar. In later years, especially with the onset of the 20th century, the national movement provided the leadership and organisation for social reform. To reach the masses, the reformers used the Indian languages to propagate their views. They used a variety of media—novels, dramas, poetry, short stories, the press, and, in the 1930s and later on, the cinema—to spread their opinions. Broadly, the social reform movements had a two-point agenda—fight for the betterment of status of women in society and fight to remove disabilities arising out of untouchability. Fight for Betterment of Position of Women: The reformers had to work against great odds. Women were generally accorded a low status and were considered to be inferior adjuncts to men, with no identity of their own. They enjoyed no scope of giving expression to their talents as they were suppressed by practices such as purdah, early marriage, ban on widow-marriage, sati, etc. Both Hindu and Muslim women were economically and socially dependent on male relatives, while education was generally denied to them. The Hindu women did not enjoy the right to inherit property or to terminate an undesirable marriage. Muslim women could inherit property but only half as much as men could, while in matters of divorce there was no equality between men and women. Polygamy was prevalent among Hindus as well as Muslims. Their glorification as wives and mothers was the only way in which society recognised the contribution of women as members of society. The improvement of the status of women in the society was considered to be vital, and social reformers worked towards this since a radical change in the domestic sphere—where initial socialisation of the individual takes place and where a crucial role is played by women— was the need of the hour. It was clearly understood that this change would translate into reformed homes and reformed men, and that no country whose females were sunk in ignorance could ever make significant progress in civilisation. The social reform movements, the freedom struggle, movements led by enlightened women themselves and, later, free India’s Constitution have done much for the emancipation of women. The reformers basically appealed to the doctrines of individualism and equality, and argued, to bolster their appeal, that true religion did not sanction an inferior status to women. They raised their voice against degrading customs such as polygamy, purdah, child marriage, restrictions on widow marriage, and worked relentlessly to establish educational facilities for women, to persuade the government to enact favourable legislations for women and in general to propagate the uselessness of medieval, feudal attitudes which required to be given up. Steps taken to Ameliorate Women’s Position: Because of the indefatigable efforts of the reformers, a number of administrative measures were adopted by the government to improve the condition of women. Abolition of Sati: Influenced by the frontal attack launched by the enlightened Indian reformers led by Raja Rammohan Roy, the government under Governor-General William Bentinck declared the practice of sati illegal and punishable by criminal courts as culpable homicide. The regulation of 1829 (Regulation XVII, AD 1829 of the Bengal Code) was applicable in the first instance to Bengal Presidency alone, but was extended in slightly modified forms to Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830. (Historians have observed that the practice of sati was sought to be banned in the regions under the control of the Portuguese, Dutch, and French in the early 16th century. In 1582, the Mughal emperor, Akbar is said to have issued orders that sati was not be coerced, and appointed inspectors to see that no widow was compelled to follow the custom.) Preventing Female Infanticide:The practice of murdering female infants immediately after their birth was a common practice among upper-class Bengalis and Rajputs who considered females to be an economic burden. The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder. An act passed in 1870 made it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies, and it provided for verification of female children for some years after birth, particularly in areas where the custom was resorted to in utmost secrecy. Widow Remarriage:The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of widow remarriage high on its agenda and did much to popularise it. But it was mainly due to the efforts of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–91), the principal of Sans- krit College, Calcutta, that the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856, was passed; it legalised marriage of widows and declared issues from such marriages as legitimate. Vidyasagar cited Vedic texts to prove that the Hindu religion sanctioned widow remarriage. Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the Widow Remarriage Association in the 1850s. Another prominent worker in this field was Karsandas Mulji who started the Satya Prakash in Gujarati in 1852 to advocate widow remarriage. Similar efforts were made by Professor DK Karve in western India and by Veerasalingam Pantulu in Madras. Karve himself married a widow in 1893. He dedicated his life to the upliftment of Hindu widows and became the secretary of the Widow Remarriage Association. He opened a widows’ home in Poona to give the high-caste widows an interest in life by providing them with facilities for vocational training. The right of widows to remarriage was also advocated by BM Malabari, Narmad (Narmadashankar Labhshankar Dave), Justice Govind Mahadeo Ranade, and K Natarajan among others. Jyotiba Phule and his wife Savitribai were also vociferous advocates of widow remarriage and campaigned against widows being subjected to degrading practices. Controlling Child Marriage: The Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act), 1872 signified legislative action in prohibiting child marriage. It had a limited impact as the act was not applicable to Hindus, Muslims, and other recognised faiths. The relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, BM Malabari, were rewarded by the enactment of the Age of Consent Act (1891), which forbade the marriage of girls below the age of 12. The case of Rukhmabai pushed the reformers to get the Age of Consent Act passed. Rukhmabai Raut, who went on to become India’s first woman physician to practise medicine, was married to Dadaji Bhikaji at the age of 11. However, with the support of her step father, Sakharam Arjun, she did not join her husband for some time during which she continued with her education. When, after some 12 years of the marriage, Dadaji Bhikaji demanded that she join him as his wife, she refused. This led to the Dadaji Bhikaji vs Rukhmabai case of 1884. Dadaji petitioned the Bombay High Court for restitution of conjugal rights of a husband. Rukhmabai questioned the validity of her marriage with Dadaji, as the marriage had taken place before she had “arrived at years of discretion” and, as such, she refused to be bound to it. Justice Robert Hill Pinhey dismissed Dadaji’s petition, saying that Rukhmabai had been married off in “helpless infancy” and hence could not be forced to join her husband. However, an appeal was sought against the judgement after many criticised it as diminishing Hindu customs and, in 1887, Pinhey’s decision was overturned by Chief Justice Sir Charles Sargent and Justice Farran. Rukhmabai was told to live with her husband. Rukhmabai declared that she would rather undergo any punishment meted out by the court rather than go to live with her husband. It is said that it was only with Queen Victoria’s intervention that the sentence of imprisonment was set aside. It is also said that even the conservatives among the Indians as well as the British government did not want Rukhmabai to be punished for her stand. The Rukhmabai case became one of the most publicised court cases in India in the 19th century, and brought the issue of child marriage and the rights of the women to the forefront. A group of Indian reformers, such as Behramji Malabari and Ramabai Ranade, formed the Rukhmabai Defence Committee to bring the case to public attention. (After finishing her studies, Rukhmabai obtained a position as Chief Medical Officer in Surat. During her long and distinguished career in medicine, she continued writing against child marriage and women’s seclusion or purdah system.) The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929, popularly known as the Sarda Act, which came into force in 1930, further pushed up the marriage age to 18 and 14 for boys and girls, respectively. (Harbilas Sarda was an Indian academic and judge, who became Member of the Central Legislative Assembly from Ajmer-Merwara. He was a follower of Dayanand Saraswati and a member of the Arya Samaj.) In free India, the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978 raised the age of marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boys from 18 to 21. Education of Women The Christian missionaries were the first to set up the Calcutta Female Juvenile Society in 1819. The Bethune School, founded by JED Bethune, president of the Council of Education in Calcutta in 1849 was the first fruit of the powerful movement for women’s education that arose in the 1840s and 1850s. Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with no less than 35 girls’ schools in Bengal and is considered one of the pioneers of women’s education. Jagannath Shankarsheth ‘Nana’ and Bhau Daji were among the active promoters of girls’ schools in Maharashtra. Jagannath ‘Nana’ Shankarsheth (the name is spelt variously – Jugonnath Sunkersett, Jagannath Shankarshet, or Jagannath Shankar Seth) was one of the founders of the School Society and Native School of Bombay. (The school changed names a number of times: it became the Bombay Native Institution in 1824; in 1840, it became the Board of Education; and in 1856 it became the Elphinstone Educational Institution.) When Dr Wilson belonging to the Scottish was unable to get accommodation for a girls’ school, Nana provided accommodation for the school and even sent the female members of his family to the school in Girgaum. In 1856, the British government had announced some grant in aid to private institutions. Nana took advantage of this and started an English Marathi school in Girgaum. He contributed funds to the girl’s school started by Student’s Literary and Scientific Society. Bhau Daji Lad (Ram Krishna Lad) was another ardent promoter of education. As the first Indian president of the Students’ Literary and Scientific Society, he championed the cause of female education, and a girls’ school was founded in his name. Perhaps the most notable pioneers in promoting the education of women was Jyotirao Phule (also called Jyotiba Phule) and his wife Savitribai. Phule held radical views for the times on the necessity of education for girls. His first gender-sensitive act was to encourage his wife Savitri to read and write. Later, impressed by the school for girls run by the American missionaries in Ahmednagar, he and his wife opened the first school for girls at Bhidewada, Pune in 1848. Not many were willing to teach in the school, given the opposition to girls’ education, so Phule and Savitribai shared the work of teaching. Savitribai could be said to have become the first female school teacher of modern India. She went on to become headmistress, and taught alongside her trainee Fatima Sheikh and Jyotirao’s emancipated aunt, Sagunabai. The Phules went on to open several more schools in and around Pune. Phule also opened night schools for those working during the day and unable to attend regular schools. The school established by the Students’ Literary and Scientific Society were assisted by European officials, but Phule’s venture was without help from the authorities. It was an ‘indigenous’ effort and that too by a non-brahmin, in the face of huge opposition from the orthodox sections of society. The Alexandra Society of Parsis opened in 1863 was aimed at educating Parsi girls. Incidentally, the first woman graduate of Bombay University was a Parsi woman, Cornelia Sorabji, in 1887. She later worked for equal opportunities for women in education. It will be seen that it was largely the private enterprise of Indians themselves that encouraged women’s education. After Lord Dalhousie declared that female education must be given “frank and cordial support”, Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854) laid great stress on the need for female education. In 1914, the Women’s Medical Service did a lot of work in training nurses and midwives. The Indian Women’s University set up by Professor DK Karve in 1916 was one of the outstanding institutions imparting education to women. In the same year, Lady Hardinge Medical College was opened in Delhi. Health facilities began to be provided to women with the opening of Dufferin hospitals in the 1880s. Participation in the swadeshi and anti-partition and the Home Rule movements during the opening decades of the 20th century was a major liberating experience for the otherwise home-centred Indian women. After 1918, they faced lathis and bullets and were jailed during political processions, picketing, etc. They actively participated in trade union and kisan movements, or revolutionary movements. They voted in, stood for, and got elected to various legislatures and local bodies. Sarojini Naidu went on to become the president of the Indian National Congress (1925) and later the governor of the United Provinces (1947–49). After 1920, aware and self-confident women led a women’s movement. Many organisations and institutions such as the All India Women’s Conference (established in 1927) came up. Women’s Organisations In 1910,  Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the first meeting of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Allahabad. Considered as the first major Indian women’s organisation set up by a woman, its objectives included promotion of education for women, abolition of the purdah system, and improvement in the socio-economic and political status of woman all over India. Sarla Devi believed that the man working for women’s upliftment lived ‘under the shade of Manu’. Ramabai Ranade founded the Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad), under the parent organisation National Social Conference, in 1904 in Bombay. Pandita Ramabai Saraswati founded the Arya Mahila Samaj to serve the cause of women. She pleaded for improvement in the educational syllabus of Indian women before the English Education Commission, which was referred to Queen Victoria. This resulted in medical education for women which started in Lady Dufferin College. Later, Ramabai Ranade established a branch of Arya Mahila Samaj in Bombay. In 1925, the National Council of Women in India, a national branch of the International Council of Women, was formed. Mehribai Tata played a vital role in its formation and advancement. She opined that the purdah system, caste differences, and lack of education prevented women from working to solve societal problems. Other women who held important positions on the executive committee of the council included Cornelia Sarabji, India’s first lady barrister; Tarabai Premchand, wife of a wealthy banker; Shaffi Tyabji, a member of one of Mumbai’s leading Muslim families; and Maharani Sucharu Devi, daughter of Keshab Chandra Sen. However, according to critics, the philanthropic style that was being followed by these women was that of upper-class English women. The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), founded by Margaret Cousins in 1927, was perhaps the first women’s organisation with an egalitarian approach. Its first conference was held at Ferguson College, Pune. Important founding members included Maharani Chimnabai Gaekwad, Rani Sahiba of Sangli, Sarojini Naidu, Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya, and Lady Dorab Tata. Its objectives were to work for a society based on principles of social justice, integrity, equal rights and opportunities; and to secure for every human being, the essentials of life, not determined by accident of birth or sex but by planned social distribution. For this purpose, the AIWC worked towards various legislative reforms before and after India’s independence, some examples being Sarda Act (1929), Hindu Women’s Right to Property Act (1937), Factory Act (1947), Hindu Marriage and Divorce Act (1954), Special Marriage Act (1954), Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956), Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (1956), the Suppression of Immoral Traffic in Women Act (1958), Maternity Benefits Act (1961), Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), and Equal Remuneration Act (1958, 1976). Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation: The later-Vedic conception of four-fold division of Hindu society got further subdivided into numerous sub-castes due to racial admixture, geographical expansion, and diversification of crafts which gave rise to new vocations. The concept of Hindu chaturvarnashrama dictated that the caste of a person determined the status and relative purity of different sections of population. It was caste that determined who could get education or ownership of landed property, the kind of profession one should pursue, whom one could dine with or marry, etc. In general, caste decided a person’s social loyalties even before birth. The dress, food, place of residence, sources of water for drinking and irrigation, entry into temples—all these were regulated by the caste factor. The worst-hit by the discriminatory institution of caste were the ‘untouchables’ or the scheduled castes/dalits, as they came to be called later. The disabilities imposed on them were humiliating, inhuman, and based on the principle of inequality by birth. Factors that Helped to Mitigate Caste-based Discrimination: British rule: perhaps without intention, created certain conditions that undermined caste consciousness to an extent. British rule in India unleashed certain forces, sometimes through direct administrative measures and sometimes indirectly by creating suitable conditions. Though these measures had negative effects in one way, they had a positive effect too. For instance, the creation of private property in land and free sale of land upset caste equations. A close interlink between caste and vocation could not survive as village autarchy crumbled. Besides, modern commerce and industry gave rise to several economic avenues, while growing urbanisation and modern means of transport added to the mobility of populations. The British administration introduced the concept of equality before law in a uniformly applied system of law which dealt a severe blow to social and legal inequalities, while the judicial functions of caste panchayats were taken away. The administrative services were made open to all castes and the new education system was on totally secular lines. The social reform movements: also strove to undermine caste-based exploitation. From the mid-19th century onwards, numerous organisations and groups such as the Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, the Theosophists, the Social Conference, and individuals worked to spread education among the untouchables and remove restrictions imposed on them from entering temples or using ponds, tanks, etc. Although many of them defended the chaturvarna system, they criticised untouchability. The social reformers attacked the rigid hereditary basis of caste distinctions and the law of karma which formed the basis of the religio-philosophic defence of the undemocratic authoritarian caste institution. They called on people to work for betterment in the real world in which they lived, rather than strive for salvation after death. For instance, the Arya Samaj while crusading against the disintegration of Hindu society into myriad sub-castes, aimed at reconstructing it on the original four-fold division and upholding the right of even the lowest castes to study the scriptures. The national movement:took inspiration from the principles of liberty and equality against the forces which tended to divide the society. The national leaders and organisations opposed caste privileges, fought for equal civic rights and free development of the individual. The caste divisions were diluted, although in a limited manner, because of mass participation in demonstrations, meetings and satyagraha struggles. The Congress governments in various provinces after 1937 did some useful work for the upliftment of the depressed classes; for instance, free education for Harijans (‘untouchables’) was introduced in some provinces. The rulers of states like Travancore, Indore, and Devas took the initiative in opening all state temples by proclamation. Gandhi always had in mind the objective of eradicating untouchability by root and branch. His ideas were based on the grounds of humanism and reason. He argued that the Shastras did not sanction untouchability and, even if they did, they should be ignored since truth cannot be confined within the covers of a book. In 1932, he founded the All India Harijan Sangh. With increasing opportunities of education and general awakening, there were stirrings among the lower castes themselves. This awakening gradually developed into a powerful movement in defence of their rights and against upper-caste oppression. In Maharashtra, Jyotiba Phule, born in a low-caste Mali family, led a movement against the brahminical domination of Hindu society. He accorded the highest priority to education of lower castes, especially girls for whom he opened several schools. Gopal Baba Walangkar, also known as Gopal Krishna, is considered to be a pioneer in the movement to uplift the untouchable people from the socio-economic oppression that they had been subject to for ages. He worked against caste discrimination in Raigad district. He expanded on Phule’s theory of the Aryan invasion, that the indigenous inhabitants of India were actually the untouchable people, and that caste was created by the invading Aryans to subjugate and control the indigenous people. He founded the Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali (Society for the Removal of Evils Among the Non- Aryans). Walangkar became the first Dalit to launch a newspaper, the Vital Vidhvasak (Destroyer of Brahmanical or Ceremonial Pollution). Walangkar strove to remove the mark of untouchability by trying to bring caste Hindus to a consciousness of their inhuman behaviour. Another pioneer in the Dalit uplift movement was Kisan Faguji Bansod. He was a proponent of upliftment of Dalits within the fold of Hinduism. He opened his press which published journals aimed at awakening the Dalits, such as Walangkar’s Vital Vidhwansak. Babasaheb Ambedkar, who had experienced the worst form of casteist discrimination during his childhood, fought against upper-caste tyranny throughout his life. In the 1920s, Ambedkar started a fortnightly newspaper, Mooknayak (Leader of the Voiceless) in 1920. He stated in the Mooknayak that a nationalist consciousness could not develop if social divisions were ignored. The newspaper presented the sufferings of the untouchables in the context of the caste system. He also formed the Bahushkrit Hitakarani Sabha in 1924 with the motto of “educate, agitate and organise”, the focus being on mobilising the masses. It marked the beginning of a new socio-economic and political movement striving to bring about equality for the oppressed classes. Another newspaper he started with the aim of defending the rights of the depressed classes was Bahishkrit Bharat (1927). Ambedkar organised the All India Scheduled Castes Federation in 1942, while several other leaders of the depressed classes had founded the All India Depressed Classes Association in the 1920s. Ambedkar condemned the hierarchical and insular caste system as a whole, and advocated the annihilation of the institution of caste for the real progress of the nation. The struggle of the depressed classes led to the provision of special representation for these classes in the Government of India Act, 1935. Others in the 1900s, such as the Maharaja of Kolhapur, encouraged the non-brahmin movement which spread to the southern states in the first decade of the 20th century and was joined by the Kammas, Reddis, Vellalas (the powerful intermediate castes), and the Muslims. During the 1920s in South India, the non-brahmins organised the Self-Respect Movement led by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker. There were numerous other movements demanding that the ban on the entry of lower castes into temples be lifted. Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala led a lifelong struggle against upper-caste domination. He coined the slogan “one religion, one caste, one God for mankind”, which his disciple Sahadaran Ayyapan changed into “no religion, no caste, no God for mankind”. Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar led the Mahad Satyagraha in March 1927 to challenge the regressive customs of the caste Hindus. He stressed the necessity of removing ideas of ‘high’ and ‘low’ and inculcating self-elevation through self-help, self-respect, and self-knowledge. He led a procession of some 2,500 ‘untouchables’ through the town of Mahad to the Chawdar tank, a public source of water tank from which the untouchables were not allowed to draw water. Dr Ambedkar took water from the tank and drank it. There were huge protests by caste Hindus. Later, in December 1927, Ambedkar and his colleagues burnt the ‘Manusmriti’ at the same place as a gesture of getting rid of inequalities. Dr Ambedkar established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha in 1924 to highlight the difficulties and grievances of the dalits before the government. Its motto was: ‘Educate, Agitate and Organise’. The Constitution of free India:has made equality and non-discrimination on the basis of caste imperative. The struggle against caste discrimination could not be successful during the British rule. The foreign government had its limitations—it could not afford to invite hostile reaction from the orthodox sections by taking up any radical measures. Also, no social uplift was possible without economic and political upliftment. All this could be realised only under the government of a free India. The Constitution of free India abolishes untouchability and declares the endorsement of any disability arising out of untouchability as unlawful. It also forbids any restriction on access to wells, tanks, bathing ghats, hotels, cinemas, clubs, etc. In one of the Directive Principles, the Constitution has laid down that “the State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which justice—social, economic and political—shall inform all the institutions of the national life”. Views of —Bombay Governor: Nationalist power to stir up discontent would be immensely increased if every cultivator could read, in a private letter to the Viceroy 1911. View of —Jawaharlal Nehru: The rising middle classes were politically inclined and were not so much in search of a religion; but they wanted some cultural roots to cling on to...that would reduce the sense of frustration and humiliation that foreign conquest and rule had produced. View of —Mahadeo Govind Ranade: The dead and the buried are dead, buried and burnt once for all and the dead past cannot, therefore, be revived except by a reformation of the old materials into new organised forms. View of —B.R. Ambedkar: Unfortunately, no brahmin scholar has so far come forward to play the part of a Voltaire who had the intellectual honesty to rise against the doctrines of the Catholic church in which he was brought up...A Voltaire among the brahmins would be a positive danger to the maintenance of a civilisation which is contrived to maintain brahminic supremacy. View of —M.K. Gandhi: Untouchability question is one of life and death for Hinduism. If untouchability lives, Hinduism perishes, and even India perishes; but if untouchability is eradicated from the Hindu heart, root and branch, then Hinduism has a definite message for the world. I want the culture of all lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. But I refuse to be blown off my feet by any. I refuse to live in other people’s houses as an interloper, a beggar or a slave.  Summary: Factors which gave Rise to Reform Movements Presence of colonial government on Indian soil. Various ills plaguing Indian society—obscurantism, superstition, polytheism, idolatry, degraded position of women, exploitative caste hierarchy. Spread of education and increased awareness of the world. Impact of modern Western culture and consciousness of defeat by a foreign power. Rising tide of nationalism and democracy during the late 19th century. Social Base: Emerging middle class and Western-educated intellectuals. Ideological Base: Rationalism, religious universalism, humanism, secularism. Social Reform Components: Betterment of Position of Women Degraded position due to Purdah system, Early marriage, Lack of education, Unequal rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, Polygamy, Female infanticide, Restrictions on widow remarriage, Sati. Major Contributors to Reforms: Social reform movements, freedom struggle, movements led by enlightened women, free India’s Constitution. Legislative Measures for Women, Bengal Regulation (1829) banning sati, Bengal Regulations (1795, 1804)—declaring infanticide illegal. Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856. Age of Consent Act, 1891, Sarda Act, 1930, Special Marriage Act, 1954, Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Hindu Succession Act, 1956, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, Maternity Benefits Act, 1961, Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978, Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act in Women and Girls, 1956 (amended in 1986), Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 (amended in 1986). Struggle Against Caste-based Exploitation:  Factors Undermining Caste Rigidities, Forces unleashed by colonial administration, Social reform movements, National movement, Gandhi’s campaign against untouchability, Stirrings among lower castes due to better education and Employment, Free India’s Constitution. A General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and Their Leaders: Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders:  Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj: Raja Rammohan Roy (1772–1833), often called the the Father of Indian Renaissance and the maker of Modern India,Was a man of versatile genius. Rammohan Roy believed in the modern scientific Approach and principles of human dignity and social equality. He put his faith in monotheism. He wrote Gift to Monotheists (1809) and translated into Bengali the Vedas and the five Upanishads to prove his conviction that ancient Hindu texts Support monotheism. In 1814, he set up the Atmiya Sabha (or Society of Friends) in Calcutta to propagate the monotheistic ideals of The Vedanta and to campaign against idolatry, caste rigidities, Meaningless rituals, and other social ills. Strongly influenced By rationalist ideas, he declared that Vedanta is based on reason and that, if reason demanded it, even a departure from The scriptures is justified. He said the principles of rationalism applied to other Sects also, particularly to the elements of blind faith in them. In his Precepts of Jesus (1820), he tried to separate the Moral and philosophical message of the New Testament, Which he praised, from its miracle stories. He earned the Wrath of missionaries over his advocacy to incorporate the Message of Christ into Hinduism. He stood for a creative and intellectual process of Selecting the best from different cultures, over which, again, He faced orthodox reaction. Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in August 1828; it was later renamed Brahmo Samaj. Through The Sabha he wanted to institutionalise his ideas and mission. The Samaj was committed to “the worship and adoration of The Eternal, Unsearchable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe”. Prayers, meditation, And readings of the Upanishads were to be the forms of Worship, and no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving, Painting, picture, portrait, etc., were to be allowed in the Samaj buildings, thus underlining the Samaj’s opposition to Idolatry and meaningless rituals. The long-term agenda of the Brahmo Samaj—to purify Hinduism and to preach Monotheism—was based on the twin pillars of reason and The Vedas and Upanishads. The Samaj also tried to incorporate Teachings of other religions and kept its emphasis on human Dignity, opposition to idolatry, and criticism of social evils Such as sati. Rammohan Roy did not want to establish a new religion. He only wanted to purify Hinduism of the evil practices Which had crept into it. Roy’s progressive ideas met with Strong opposition from orthodox elements like Raja Radhakant Deb who organised the Dharma Sabha to counter Brahmo Samaj propaganda. Roy’s death in 1833 was a setback for The Samaj’s mission. The features of Brahmo Samaj may be summed up in This way. It denounced polytheism and idol worship; It discarded faith in divine avataras (incarnations);  It denied that any scripture could enjoy the status Of ultimate authority transcending human reason and Conscience. It took no definite stand on the doctrine of karma And transmigration of soul and left it to individual Brahmos to believe either way, It criticised the caste system. His ideas and activities were also aimed at political Uplift of the masses through social reform and, to that extent, Can be said to have had nationalist undertones. Raja Rammohan Roy’s Efforts at Social Reform: Rammohan was a determined crusader against the inhuman Practice of sati. He started his anti-sati struggle in 1818, And he cited sacred texts to prove his contention that no Religion sanctioned the burning alive of widows, besides Appealing to humanity, reason, and compassion. He also Visited the cremation grounds, organised vigilance groups, And filed counter petitions to the government during his Struggle against sati. His efforts were rewarded by the Government Regulation in 1829, which declared the practice Of sati a crime. As a campaigner for women’s rights, Roy condemned The general subjugation of women and opposed prevailing Misconceptions which formed the basis of according an Inferior social status to women. Roy attacked polygamy and The degraded state of widows and demanded the right of Inheritance and property for women. Rammohan Roy did much to disseminate the benefits Of modern education to his countrymen. He supported David Hare’s efforts to found the Hindu College in 1817, while Roy’s English school taught mechanics and Voltaire’s Philosophy. In 1825, he established a Vedanta college where Courses in both Indian learning and Western social and physical sciences were offered. He also helped enrich the Bengali language by compiling a Bengali grammar book and Evolving a modern elegant prose style. Rammohan was a gifted linguist. He knew more than A dozen languages including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English, French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. A knowledge of different Languages helped him broadbase his range of study. As a bold supporter of freedom of the Press and as A pioneer in Indian journalism, Roy brought out journals in Bengali, Hindi, English, Persian to educate and inform the Public and represent their grievances before the government.  As a political activist, Roy condemned oppressive Practices of Bengali zamindars and demanded fixation of Maximum rents. He also demanded abolition of taxes on tax-Free lands. He called for a reduction of export duties on Indian goods abroad and abolition of the East India Company’s Trading rights. He demanded the Indianisation of superior Services and separation of the executive from the judiciary. He demanded judicial equality between Indians and Europeans And that trial be held by jury. Rammohan was an internationalist with a vision beyond His times. He stood for cooperation of thought and activity And brotherhood among nations. His understanding of the Universal character of the principles of liberty, equality and Justice indicated that he well understood the significance of The modern age. He supported the revolutions of Naples and Spanish America and condemned the oppression of Ireland By absentee English landlordism and threatened emigration From the empire if the reform bill was not passed. Roy had David Hare, Alexander Duff, Debendranath Tagore, PK Tagore, Chandrashekhar Deb, and Tarachand Chakraborty as his associates. Debendranath Tagore and Brahmo Samaj: Maharishi Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905), father of Rabindranath Tagore and a product of the best in traditional Indian learning and Western thought, gave a new life to Brahmo Samaj and a definite form and shape to the theist Movement, when he joined the Samaj in 1842. Earlier, Tagore Headed the Tattvabodhini Sabha (founded in 1839) which, Along with its organ Tattvabodhini Patrika in Bengali, was Devoted to the systematic study of India’s past with a rational Outlook and to the propagation of Rammohan’s ideas. A new Vitality and strength of membership came to be associated With the Brahmo Samaj due to the informal association of The two sabhas. Gradually, the Brahmo Samaj came to include Prominent followers of Rammohan, the Derozians and Independent thinkers such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Ashwini Kumar Datta. Tagore worked on two fronts: within Hinduism, the Brahmo Samaj was a reformist movement; Outside, it resolutely opposed the Christian missionaries for Their criticism of Hinduism and their attempts at conversion. The revitalised Samaj supported widow remarriage, women’s Education, abolition of polygamy, improvement in ryots’ Conditions, and temperance. Keshab Chandra Sen and the Brahmo Samaj: The Brahmo Samaj experienced another phase of energy, When Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–84) was made the acharya By Debendranath Tagore soon after the former joined the Samaj in 1858. Keshab (also spelt Keshub) was instrumental In popularising the movement, and branches of the Samaj Were opened outside Bengal—in the United Provinces, Punjab, Bombay, Madras, and other towns. Unfortunately, Debendranath did not like some of Sen’s ideas which he Found too radical, such as cosmopolitanisation of the Samaj’s Meetings by inclusion of teachings from all religions and his Strong views against the caste system, even open support to inter-caste marriages. Keshab Chandra Sen was dismissed From the office of acharya in 1865. Keshab and his followers founded the Brahmo Samaj Of India in 1866, while Debendranath Tagore’s Samaj came To be known as the Adi Brahmo Samaj. In 1878, Keshab’s inexplicable act of getting his 13- Year-old daughter married to the minor Hindu Maharaja of Cooch-Behar with all the orthodox Hindu rituals caused Another split in Keshab’s Brahmo Samaj of India. Earlier, Keshab had begun to be considered as an incarnation by some Of his followers, much to the dislike of his progressive Followers. Further, Keshab had begun to be accused of Authoritarianism. After 1878, the disgusted followers of Keshab set up A new organisation, the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj. The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj was started by Ananda Mohan Bose, Sib Chandra Deb, and Umeshchandra Dutta. It reiterated the Brahmo doctrines of faith in a Supreme being, one God, the Belief that no scripture or man is infallible, belief in the Dictates of reason, truth, and morality. A number of Brahmo centres were opened in Madras Province. In Punjab, the Dayal Singh Trust sought to implant Brahmo ideas by the opening of Dayal Singh College at Lahore in 1910. Significance of the Brahmo Samaj: In matters of social reform, the Samaj attacked many dogmas And superstitions. It condemned the prevailing Hindu prejudice Against going abroad. It worked for a respectable status for Women in society—condemned sati, worked for abolition of The purdah system, discouraged child marriage and polygamy, Crusaded for widow remarriage and for provisions of Educational facilities. It also attacked casteism and Untouchability though in these matters it attained only limited Success. The influence of the Brahmo Samaj, however, did not Go much beyond Calcutta and, at most, Bengal. It did not have A lasting impact.  Prarthana Samaj: In 1867, Keshab Chandra Sen helped Atmaram Pandurang Found the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay. Earlier, the Brahmo Ideas spread in Maharashtra. A precursor of the Prarthana Samaj was the Paramahansa Sabha, something like a secret Society to spread liberal ideas and encourage the breakdown Of caste and communal barriers. Mahadeo Govind Ranade (1842–1901), joined the samaj in 1870, and much of the Popularity of and work done by the society was due to his Efforts. His efforts made the samaj gain an all-India character. Other leaders of the samaj were RG Bhandarkar (1837– 1925) and NG  Chandavarkar (1855–1923). The emphasis Was on monotheism, but on the whole, the samaj was more Concerned with social reforms than with religion. The Prarthana Sabha was very attached to the bhakti cult of Maharashtra. The samaj relied on education and persuasion And not on confrontation with Hindu orthodoxy. There was A four-point social agenda also:  disapproval of caste System; women’s education;  widow remarriage; and Raising the age of marriage for both males and females. Dhondo Keshav Karve and Vishnu Shastri were champions Of social reform with Ranade. Along with Karve, Ranade Founded the Widow Remarriage Movement as well as Widows’ Home Association with the aim of providing education and Training to widows so that they could support themselves. Young Bengal Movement and Henry Vivian Derozio: During the late 1820s and early 1830s, there emerged a Radical, intellectual trend among the youth in Bengal, which Came to be known as the ‘Young Bengal Movement’. A young Anglo-Indian, Henry Vivian Derozio (1809–31), who taught At the Hindu College from 1826 to 1831, was the leader and Inspirer of this progressive trend. Drawing inspiration from The great French Revolution, Derozio inspired his pupils to Think freely and rationally, question all authority, love liberty, Equality and freedom, and oppose decadent customs and Traditions. The Derozians also supported women’s rights and Education. Also, Derozio was perhaps the first nationalist Poet of modern India. The Derozians, however, failed to have a long-term Impact. Derozio was removed from the Hindu College in 1831 because of his radicalism. The main reason for their limited success was the prevailing social conditions at that Time, which were not ripe for the adoption of radical ideas. Further, there was no support from any other social group Or class. The Derozians lacked any real link with the masses; For instance, they failed to take up the peasants’ cause. In Fact, their radicalism was bookish in character. But, despite Their limitations, the Derozians carried forward Rammohan Roy’s tradition of public education on social, economic, and Political questions. For instance, they demanded induction of Indians in higher grades of services, protection of ryots from Oppressive zamindars, better treatment to Indian labour Abroad in British colonies, revision of the Company’s charter, Freedom of press, and trial by jury. Later, Surendranath Banerjea was to describe the Derozians as “the pioneers of the modern civilisation of Bengal, the conscript fathers of our race whose virtues will Excite veneration and whose failings will be treated with Gentlest consideration”.  Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: The great scholar and reformer, Vidyasagar’s ideas were a Happy blend of Indian and Western thought. He believed in High moral values, was a deep humanist, and was generous To the poor. In 1850, he became the principal of Sanskrit College. He was determined to break the priestly monopoly Of scriptural knowledge, and for this he opened the Sanskrit College to non-brahmins. He introduced Western thought in Sanskrit College to break the self-imposed isolation of Sanskritic learning. As an academician, he evolved a new Methodology to teach Sanskrit. He also devised a new Bengali Primer and evolved a new prose style. Vidyasagar started a movement in support of widow Remarriage which resulted in legalisation of widow remarriage. He was also a crusader against child marriage and polygamy. He did much for the cause of women’s education. As Government inspector of schools, he helped organise 35 Girls’ schools many of which he ran at his own expense. As Secretary of Bethune School (established in 1849), he was One of the pioneers of higher education for women in India. The Bethune School, founded in Calcutta, was the result Of the powerful movement for women’s education that arose In the 1840s and 1850s. The movement had to face great Difficulties. The young students were shouted at and abused And, sometimes, even their parents subjected to social Boycott. Many believed that girls who had received Western Education would make slaves of their husbands.  Balshastri Jambhekar: Balshastri Jambhekar (1812–46) was a pioneer of social Reform through journalism in Bombay; he attacked brahminical Orthodoxy and tried to reform popular Hinduism. He started The newspaper Darpan in 1832. Known as the father of Marathi journalism, Jambhekar used the Darpan to awaken The people to awareness of social reforms, such as widow Remarriage, and to instil in the masses a scientific approach To life. In 1840, he started Digdarshan, which published Articles on scientific subjects as well as history. Jambhekar founded the Bombay Native General Library And started the Native Improvement Society of which an Offshoot was the Students Literary and Scientific Library. He Was the first professor of Hindi at the Elphinston College, Besides being a director of the Colaba Observatory.  Paramahansa Mandali: Founded in 1849 in Maharashtra, the founders of the Paramahansa Mandali—Dadoba Pandurang, Mehtaji Durgaram And others—began as a secret society that worked to reform Hindu religion and society in general. The ideology of the Society was closely linked to that of the Manav Dharma Sabha. Besides believing that one god should be worshipped, The society also said real religion is based on love and moral Conduct. Freedom of thought was encouraged as was Rationality. The founders of the mandali were primarily Interested in breaking caste rules. At their meetings, food Cooked by lower caste people was taken by the members. These mandalis also advocated widow remarriage and women’s Education. Branches of Paramahansa Mandali existed in Poona, Satara, and other towns of Maharashtra. Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule: Jyotirao or Jyotiba Phule (1827–90), born in Satara, Maharashtra, belonged to the mali (gardener) community and Organised a powerful movement against upper caste domination And brahminical supremacy. Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in 1873, with the leadership Of the samaj coming from the backward classes, malis, telis, Kunbis, saris, and dhangars. The main aims of the movement Were social service, and  spread of education among Women and lower caste people. Phule wanted social transformation, not just social Reform. He was of the view that until the oppressed classes Or the masses were educated, there would be no mass Awakening, and social revolution would not be possible. Jyotiba wanted a society free of exploitation. Many believe That Phule introduced the Marathi word ‘dalit’ (meaning Crushed) to describe those outside the varna system. He propagated what came to be called the Satyashodhak Marriage ceremony – simple and inexpensive, besides making The services of the brahmin priest redundant. Phule’s works, Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri, Became sources of inspiration for the common masses. Phule Used the symbol of Rajah Bali as opposed to the brahmins’ Symbol of Rama. Phule aimed at the complete abolition of The caste system and socio-economic inequalities; he was Against Sanskritic Hinduism. This movement gave a sense of Identity to the depressed communities as a class against those Brahmins who used religion and the blind faith of the masses To exploit the masses for personal monetary gain. Jyotiba Phule was given the title of Mahatma in 1888 By another Maharashtrian social reformer, Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar. Jyotiba was not allowed to continue schooling because Of his caste. However, with help and encouragement from The Persian scholar Ghaffar Baig Munshi and a British Official, Lizit Sahab, Jyotiba was admitted in a Scottish Missionary school. The society of the day was against Education of girls as well. Yet, he along with his wife, Savitribai, were instrumental in opening a school for girls In Pune. The school syllabus included mathematics, science, And social studies. Savitribai, also of the mali community, was born in 1831 at Naigaon in Maharashtra’s Satara district and was Married to Jyotiba Phule when a child of nine. Jyotiba, a firm Believer in education for all, including women, taught his wife At home. Later, she took a teacher’s training course. She Faced abuse and humiliation from the people along the way When she walked to the school to teach, but she braved it To persist with her vocation. Savitribai also began to teach Women and children from the downtrodden castes including Mang and Mahar. She and her husband established two Educational trusts, namely the Native Female School, Pune, And the Society for Promoting the Education of Mahars, Mangs, and others. Savitribai went on from girls’ education to question Many social evils and work towards eradicating them. She Started the Mahila Seva Mandal to raise awareness about Women’s rights. She and her husband rigorously campaigned Against the dehumanisation of widows and advocated widow Remarriage. Savitribai is said to have organised a successful Barbers’ strike to denounce the inhumane practice of shaving Widows’ heads. With her husband, she set up a home called Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (home to prevent infanticide) in 1863, where unwed mothers and widows who became pregnant Under unfortunate circumstances could have safe deliveries Instead of resorting to killing the infants or themselves. She and her husband set an example against the evil Of untouchability by opening their own water storage to Everyone. After Jyotiba’s death, Savitribai took over the Satya Shodhak Samaj, presiding over the meetings, guiding the Workers, and working for plague victims. She died in 1897, Getting infected by the plague while caring for a patient. Savitribai wrote poetry, and two of her collections are Kavyaphule and Bavankashi Subodh Ratnakar. (In August 2014, the name of the University of Pune Was changed to Savitribai Phule Pune University in honour Of Savitribai Phule.)  Gopal Baba Walangkar: Gopal Baba Walangkar, also known as Gopal Krishna, (circa 1840–1900) was a pioneer in the cause of uplifting the Dalits From the socio-economic oppression that they suffered. Indeed, Walangkar is generally considered by Ambedkar to Be the pioneer of the Dalit movement. Born into a Mahar Family near Mahad in what is now Raigad district of Maharashtra, Gopal Krishna served in the army till he retired In 1886. He was deeply influenced by Jyotiba Phule. Walangkar subscribed to Phule’s idea of the Aryan Invasion theory, and said that the untouchable people of India Were the indigenous inhabitants and that the brahmins came From the invading Aryans. He contended that the concept of Caste was contrived by the Aryan invaders to subjugate and Control the Anaryans (who were the indigenous people). He Formed a group of Mahar astrologers so as to give a sense Of empowerment to the Mahars and reduce the importance Of the brahmins as the service of setting the time for Ceremonies was the only one that brahmins had been willing To perform for the Mahars. Walangkar founded the Anarya Dosh-Parihar Mandali (Society for the Removal of Evils Among the Non-Aryans). It was through this society that a petition was sought to be Raised against the policy of the government to discontinue The recruitment of Mahars in the army. In 1888, Walangkar began publishing the monthly Journal Vital Vidhvansak (Destroyer of Brahmanical or Ceremonial Pollution). In 1889, he followed with a pamphlet, Vital Viduvansan (Annihilation of Ceremonial Pollution), Which spoke against the position of untouchables in society. He has been called “the first intellectual rebel from the Dalit Community to have launched a scathing criticism of the caste System and the position of Dalits in it.” His approach was Not so much a direct opposition to the elites of society; it Was rather an appeal aimed at making them change their Attitude. He also wrote Hindu Dharma Darpan published in 1894. He contributed to Marathi language journals such as Sudharak and Deenbandhu to arouse awareness and inspire The depressed classes. The attitude of the upper castes is manifest in the Opposition they showed when Walangkar was appointed to The local taluk board of Mahad in 1895.  Kisan Faguji Bansod: Kisan Faguji Bansod (1879–1946) was born in a Mahar Family at Mohapa village near Nagpur in Maharashtra. He Wanted the Dalits boys and girls to be educated. He established The Chokhamela girls’ school at Nagpur. Setting up his own Press in 1910, Bansod published the journals Nirashrit Hind Nagarik, Vital Vidhvansak, and Majur Patrika. He was one Of the secretaries of the All India Depressed Classes Conference in 1920. Bansod was influenced by the Bhakti cult and the work Of the Brahmo Samaj and the Prarthana Samaj. Though he Also subscribed to the theory of the enslavement of the Dalits8 Because of the Aryan invasion, he advocated reforms within Hinduism for the upliftment of the Dalits.  Vitthal Ramji Shinde: Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde (1873–1944) was born in a Marathi family in Karnataka. He was influenced in his Spiritual journey by the works of Tukaram, Eknath, and Ramdas. Brought up in a liberal intellectual atmosphere, he Was also influenced by Hari Narayan Apte, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, GB Kotkar among other thinkers. He joined the Prarthana Samaj and worked towards the removal of Untouchability in India. He established a night school for the Children of untouchables in Pune in 1905. He established the Depressed Classes Mission in Bombay in 1906. The mission Was aimed at trying to get rid of untouchability; to provide Educational facilities for the untouchables; and try to solve The problems of the untouchables. Shinde gave evidence before the Southborough Franchise Committee in 1919, and expressed the need for giving special Representation to the untouchable class. He resigned as the Executive of the Depressed Classes Mission when some of The members wanted the mission’s affairs to be managed by Their own people. He, however, continued to work for the Depressed classes. He was in favour of a united front from The depressed classes and the caste Hindus as he feared the British rulers would otherwise exploit the divisions in Indian Society for their own advantage. He expressed his opposition to the caste system, idol Worship, and inequities forced on women and the depressed Classes even as he was against meaningless rituals, the Dominance of hereditary priesthood, and the very need for A priest to mediate between a devotee and God. He took part in the Civil Disobedience Movement and Was imprisoned in the Yerawda Central Jail. Shinde was the author of Bharatiya Asprushyatecha Prashna.  Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’: Gopalhari Deshmukh (1823–92) was a social reformer and Rationalist from Maharashtra. He held the post of a judge Under British raj, but wrote for a weekly Prabhakar under The pen name of Lokahitawadi on social reform issues. He advocated a reorganisation of Indian society on rational Principles and modern, humanistic, secular values. He attacked Hindu orthodoxy and supported social and religious equality. He wrote against the evils of the caste system. He said, “If Religion does not sanction social reform, then change religion.” He started a weekly, Hitechhu, and also played a leading role In founding the periodicals, Gyan Prakash, Indu Prakash, And Lokahitawadi.  Gopal Ganesh Agarkar: Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856–95) was an educationist and Social reformer from Maharashtra. A strong advocate of the Power of human reason, he criticised the blind dependence On tradition and false glorification of the past. He was a co Founder of the New English School, the Deccan Education Society and Fergusson College. He was a principal of Fergusson College. He was also the first editor of Kesari, The journal started by Lokmanya Tilak. Later, he started his Own periodical, Sudharak, which spoke against untouchability And the caste system.  The Servants of India Society: Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866–1915), a liberal leader of the Indian National Congress, founded the Servants of India Society in 1905 with the help of M.G. Ranade. The aim of The society was to train national missionaries for the service Of India; to promote, by all constitutional means, the true Interests of the Indian people; and to prepare a cadre of Selfless workers who were to devote their lives to the cause Of the country in a religious spirit. In 1911, the Hitavada Began to be published to project the views of the society. The society chose to remain aloof from political activities And organisations like the Indian National Congress. After Gokhale’s death (1915), Srinivasa Shastri took Over as president. The society still continues to function, Though with a shrunken base, at many places in India. It works In the field of education, providing ashram type of schools For tribal girls and balwadis at many places.  Social Service League: A follower of Gokhale, Narayan Malhar Joshi founded the Social Service League in Bombay with an aim to secure for The masses better and reasonable conditions of life and work. They organised many schools, libraries, reading rooms, day Nurseries, and cooperative societies. Their activities also Included police court agents’ work, legal aid and advice to The poor and illiterate, excursions for slum dwellers, facilities For gymnasia and theatrical performances, sanitary work, Medical relief, and boys’ clubs and scout corps. Joshi also Founded the All India Trade Union Congress (1920). The Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Vivekananda: The didactic nationalism of the Brahmo Samaj appealed more To the intellectual elite in Bengal, while the average Bengali Found more emotional satisfaction in the cult of bhakti and Yoga. The teachings of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836– 86), a poor priest at the Kali temple in Dakshineshwar, on The outskirts of Calcutta (who was known in childhood as Gadadhar Chattopadhyay) found many followers. Ramakrishna Experienced spiritual trances (ecstasy) from a very early age. He is considered to have attained the highest spiritual Experience available to Hindus. He did not write books, but His conversations with people formed the basis of what were Considered his teachings. He spoke simply, in the form of Parables and metaphors, drawn from the observation of Ordinary life and nature. But what he said was of universal Relevance. Two objectives of the Ramakrishna movement Were,to bring into existence a band of monks dedicated To a life of renunciation and practical spirituality, from among Whom teachers and workers would be sent out to spread the Universal message of Vedanta as illustrated in the life of Ramakrishna, and in conjunction with lay disciples to Carry on preaching, philanthropic and charitable works, looking Upon all men, women and children, irrespective of caste, Creed, or colour, as veritable manifestations of the Divine. Paramahamsa himself laid the foundations of the Ramakrishna Math with his young monastic disciples as a nucleus to fulfil The first objective. The second objective was taken up by Swami Vivekananda after Ramakrishna’s death when he founded The Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. The headquarters of the Ramakrishna Math and Mission are at Belur near Calcutta. The two are twin organisations, though legally and financially Separate Paramahamsa sought salvation through traditional ways Of renunciation, meditation, and bhakti amidst increasing Westernisation and modernisation. He recognised the Fundamental oneness of all religions and emphasised that Krishna, Hari, Ram, Christ, Allah are different names for the Same God, and that there are many ways to God and salvation: “As many faiths, so many paths.” Paramahamsa’s spirituality And compassion for the suffering humanity inspired those Who listened to him. He used to say, “Service of man is the Service of God.” Incidentally, Ramakrishna was married to Saradmani Mukherjee, later known as Sarada Devi. Ramakrishna Considered Sarada as the embodiment of the Divine Mother. It was as ‘holy mother’ that the disciples also knew her as. She played an important role in the work of the math and Encouraging the young disciples in their mission. Swami Vivekananda: Narendranath Datta (1862–1902), who later came to be Known as Swami Vivekananda, spread Ramakrishna’s message And tried to reconcile it to the needs of contemporary Indian Society. He emerged as the preacher of neo-Hinduism. Certain spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, the teachings Of the Upanishads and the Gita and the examples of the Buddha and Jesus are the basis of Vivekananda’s message to The world about human values. He subscribed to the Vedanta, Which he considered a fully rational system with a superior Approach. His mission was to bridge the gulf between Paramartha (service) and vyavahara (behaviour), and between Spirituality and day-to-day life. Vivekananda believed in the fundamental oneness of God and said, “For our own motherland a junction of the two Great systems, Hinduism and Islam, is the only hope.” Emphasising social action, he declared that knowledge Without action is useless. He lamented the isolationist Tendencies and the touch-me-not attitude of Hindus in Religious matters. He frowned at religion’s tacit approval of The oppression of the poor by the rich. He believed that it Was an insult to God and humanity to teach religion to a Starving man. He pointed out that the masses needed two Kinds of knowledge—secular knowledge about how to work For their economic uplift and the spiritual knowledge to have Faith in themselves and strengthen their moral sense. He Called upon his countrymen to imbibe a spirit of liberty, Equality, and free thinking. At the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893, Swami Vivekananda made a great impression on people By his learned interpretations. The keynote of his opening Address was the need for a healthy balance between spiritualism And materialism. Envisaging a new culture for the whole World, he called for a blend of the materialism of the West And the spiritualism of the East into a new harmony to Produce happiness for mankind. Vivekananda gave several Lectures on Vedanta in the USA and in London before Returning to India in 1897. In India he delivered a series of lectures, the focus of Which were to infuse into the new generation a sense of pride In India’s past, a new faith in India’s culture, and a rare sense Of confidence in India’s future; to bring about a unification Of Hinduism by pointing out the common foundation of its Sects; to make the educated people see the misery of the Downtrodden and work for their uplift by the application of Practical Vedanta principles. His emphasis was not only on Personal salvation but also on social good and reform. In 1897, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission. Vivekananda was a great humanist and used the Ramakrishna Mission for humanitarian relief and social work. The Mission Stands for religious and social reform. Vivekananda advocated The doctrine of service—the service of all beings. The service Of jiva (living objects) is the worship of Siva. Life itself Is religion. By service, the Divine exists within man. Vivekananda was for using technology and modern science In the service of mankind. Ever since its inception, the Mission has been running A number of schools, hospitals, dispensaries. It offers help To the afflicted in times of natural calamities like earthquakes, Famines, floods, and epidemics. The Mission has developed Into a worldwide organisation. It is a deeply religious body, But it is not a proselytising body. It does not consider itself To be a sect of Hinduism. In fact, this is one of the strong Reasons for the success of the Mission. Unlike the Arya Samaj, the Mission recognises the utility and value of image Worship in developing spiritual fervour and worship of the Eternal omnipotent God, although it emphasises on the Essential spirit and not the symbols or rituals. It believes that The philosophy of Vedanta will make a Christian a better Christian, and a Hindu a better Hindu. It was in 1898 that Swami Vivekananda acquired a large Piece of land at Belur where the Ramakrishna Math was Finally shifted and registered as such. The monastic order is Open to all men without discrimination on the basis of caste Or creed.  Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj: The Arya Samaj Movement, revivalist in form though not in Content, was the result of a reaction to Western influences. Its founder, Dayananda Saraswati or Mulshankar (1824–83) Was born in the old Morvi state in Gujarat in a brahmin family. He wandered as an ascetic for 15 years (1845–60) in search Of truth. The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by Him at Bombay in 1875, and later the headquarters of the Samaj were established at Lahore. Dayananda’s views were published in his famous work, Satyarth Prakash (The True Exposition). His vision of India Included a classless and casteless society, a united India (religiously, socially, and nationally), and an India free from Foreign rule, with Aryan religion being the common religion Of all. He took inspiration from the Vedas and considered Them to be ‘India’s Rock of Ages’, the infallible and the true Original seed of Hinduism. He gave the slogan “Back to the Vedas”. Dayananda’s slogan of ‘Back to the Vedas’ was a call For a revival of Vedic learning and Vedic purity of religion And not a revival of Vedic times. He accepted modernity and Displayed a patriotic attitude to national problems. Dayananda had received education on Vedanta from a Blind teacher named Swami Virajananda in Mathura. Along With his emphasis on Vedic authority, he stressed the Significance of individual interpretation of the scriptures and Said that every person has the right of access to God. He Criticised later Hindu scriptures such as the Puranas and the Ignorant priests for perverting Hinduism. Dayananda strongly criticised the escapist Hindu belief In maya (illusion) as the running theme of all physical Existence and the aim of human life as a struggle to attain Moksha (salvation) through escape from this evil world to Seek union with God. Instead, he advocated that God, soul, And matter (prakriti) were distinct and eternal entities and Every individual had to work out his own salvation in the light Of the eternal principles governing human conduct. Thus, he Attacked the prevalent popular belief that every individual Contributed and got back from the society according the Principles of niyati (destiny). Dayananda believed in the Theory of karma and reincarnation. But he also said the good Deeds should be primarily for the good of others and not For self. Dayananda launched a frontal attack on Hindu orthodoxy, Caste rigidities, untouchability, idolatry, polytheism, belief in Magic, charms and animal sacrifices, taboo on sea voyages, Feeding the dead through shraddhas, etc. Dayananda subscribed to the Vedic notion of Chaturvarna system in which a person was identified as a Brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, or shudra not by birth but According to the occupation and merit of the person. The Arya Samaj fixed the minimum marriageable age At 25 years for boys and 16 years for girls. Swami Dayananda Once lamented the Hindu race as “the children of children”. The ten guiding principles of the Arya Samaj are : God is the primary source of all true knowledge; ,God, As all-truth, all-knowledge, almighty, immortal, creator of Universe, is alone worthy of worship; ,the Vedas are the Books of true knowledge; ,an Arya should always be ready To accept truth and abandon untruth;,dharma, that is, due Consideration of right and wrong, should be the guiding Principle of all actions; ,the principal aim of the Samaj Is to promote world’s well-being in the material, spiritual And social sense; , everybody should be treated with love And justice;, ignorance is to be dispelled and knowledge Increased; , one’s own progress should depend on uplift Of all others; ,social well-being of mankind is to be placed Above an individual’s well-being. The Arya Samaj’s social ideals comprise, among others, The fatherhood of God and brotherhood of Man, equality of The sexes, absolute justice and fair play between man and man And nation and nation. Intercaste marriages and widow Remarriages were also encouraged. Dayananda also met other reformers of the time— Keshab Chandra Sen, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Ranade, Deshmukh, etc. The Arya Samaj came to be known for the social service It rendered in times of calamities such as earthquake, famine And floods. It also took initiative in promoting education. After the death of Dayananda in 1883, the work of the Samaj was carried on by illustrious members. Education was An all-important field for the samaj. The Dayananda Anglo- Vedic (D A V) College was established in 1886 at Lahore. But a difference of opinion between two groups in the samaj Arose over the curriculum of the D A V College. One group Was known as the College Party (some sources say ‘Culture’ Party), among whose leaders were Lala Hansraj, Lala Lal Chand and Lala Lajpat Rai, and the other was the Mahatma (later Gurukul) Party led by Guru Datta Vidyarthi and Lala Munshi Ram (who later came to be known as Swami Shraddhanand). While the College Party favoured the Government curriculum and English education to meet Economic and professional needs, the Mahatma Party was Interested in introducing the study of Sanskrit and Vedic Philosophy in the tradition of ancient gurukuls. Later, the Issue of vegetarianism also became a point of contention: The College Party had nothing against non-vegetarianism, Claiming that diet was a personal choice and it was not Mentioned in the principles of the samaj; the Mahatma Party Was in favour of all the Aryas being strict vegetarians. In the End, the Arya Samaj split in 1893 over these issues. The College Party retained control over the D A V School and College, while the Arya Pratinidhi Sabha, Punjab, And a majority of the local Arya Samaj branches were taken Over by the Mahatma Party. Swami Shraddhanand opened the Gurukul in 1900 at Gujaranwala (in West Punjab, now in Pakistan). In 1902, the Gurukul was moved to Kangri near Haridwar, hence the name, Gurukul Kangri. The gurukul Aimed at providing an indigenous alternative to Lord Macaulay’s education policy by offering education in the Areas of vedic literature, Indian philosophy, Indian culture as Well as modern sciences and research. The Gurukul believed In radical social reform. It founded the Kanya Mahavidyalaya At Jalandhar in 1896 and sponsored education for widows. The Arya Samaj was able to give self-respect and self- Confidence to the Hindus which helped to undermine the Myth of superiority of whites and the Western culture. In its zeal to protect the Hindu society from the Onslaught of Christianity and Islam, the Samaj started the Shuddhi (purification) movement to reconvert to the Hindu Fold the converts to Christianity and Islam. An aggressive Campaign of shuddhi led to increasing communalisation of Social life during the 1920s and later snowballed into Communal political consciousness. The shuddhi movement Also attempted to uplift those regarded as untouchables and Outside the caste system of Hindus into pure caste Hindus.  Seva Sadan: A Parsi social reformer, Behramji M Malabari (1853–1912), Founded the Seva Sadan in 1908 along with a friend, Diwan Dayaram Gidumal. Malabari spoke vigorously against child Marriage and for widow remarriage among Hindus. It was his Efforts that led to the Age of Consent Act, regulating the Age of consent for females, Seva Sadan specialised in taking Care of those women who were exploited and then discarded By society. It catered to all castes and provided the destitute Women with education, and medical and welfare services. [Behramji Malabari acquired and edited the Indian Spectator.]  Dev Samaj: Founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri (1850– 1927), earlier a Brahmo follower, Dev Sadan is a religious And social reform society. The society emphasised on the Eternity of the soul, the supremacy of the guru, and the need For good action. It called for an ideal social behaviour such As not accepting bribes, avoiding intoxicants and non-vegetarian Food, and keeping away from violent actions. Its teachings Were compiled in a book, Deva Shastra. Agnihotri spoke Against child marriage.  Dharma Sabha: Radhakant Deb founded this sabha in 1830. An orthodox Society, it stood for the preservation of the status quo in Socio-religious matters, opposing even the abolition of sati. However, it favoured the promotion of Western education, Even for girls.  Bharat Dharma Mahamandala: An all-India organisation of the orthodox educated Hindus, It stood for a defence of orthodox Hinduism against the Teachings of the Arya Samajists, the Theosophists, and the Ramakrishna Mission. Other organisations created to defend Orthodox Hinduism were the Sanatana Dharma Sabha (1895), The Dharma Maha Parishad in South India, and Dharma Mahamandali in Bengal. These organisations combined in 1902 to form the single organisation of Bharat Dharma Mahamandala, with headquarters at Varanasi. This organisation Sought to introduce proper management of Hindu religious Institutions, open Hindu educational institutions, etc. Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya was a prominent figure in this Movement.  Radhaswami Movement: Tulsi Ram, a banker from Agra, also known as Shiv Dayal Saheb, founded this movement in 1861. The Radhaswamis Believe in one supreme being, supremacy of the guru, a Company of pious people (satsang), and a simple social life. Spiritual attainment, they believe, does not call for renunciation Of the worldly life. They consider all religions to be true. While the sect has no belief in temples, shrines, and sacred Places, it considers as necessary duties, works of faith and Charity, service and prayer.  Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement: The SNDP movement was an example of a regional movement Born out of conflict between the depressed classes and upper Castes. It was started by Sree Narayana Guru Swamy (1856– 1928) among the Ezhavas of Kerala, who were a backward Caste of toddy-tappers and were considered to be untouchables, And were denied education and entry into temples. The Ezhavas were the single largest caste group in Kerala Constituting 26 per cent of the total population. Narayana Guru, himself from the Ezhava caste, took a stone from the Neyyar river and installed it as a Sivalinga at Aruvippuram On Sivaratri in 1888. It was intended to show that consecration Of an idol was not the monopoly of the higher castes. With This, he began a revolution that soon led to the removal of Many discriminations in Kerala’s society. The movement (Aruvippuram Movement) drew the famous poet Kumaran Asan as a disciple of Narayana Guru. In 1889, the Aruvippuram Kshetra Yogam was formed, which was decided to expand Into a big organisation to help the Ezhavas to progress Materially as well as spiritually. Thus, the Aruvippuram Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam (in short SNDP) was registered in 1903 Under the Indian Companies Act, with Narayana Guru as its Permanent chairman, and Kumaran Asan as the general Secretary. (In the formation of SNDP, the efforts of Dr Palpu Must be acknowledged. He had started the fight for social Justice through movements like Ezhava Memorial, Malayali Memorial, etc.) Sree Narayana Guru held all religions to be the same And condemned animal sacrifice besides speaking against Divisiveness on the basis of caste, race, or creed. On the wall Of the Aruvippuram temple he got inscribed the words, “Devoid of dividing walls of caste or race, or hatred of rival Faith, we all live here in brotherhood.” He urged the Ezhavas To leave the toddy-tapping profession and even to stop Drinking liquor. The SNDP Yogam took up several issues for the Ezhavas, such as:  right of admission to public schools; , recruitment to government services; , access to roads And entry to temples; and ,political representation. The Movement as a whole brought transformative structural Changes such as upward social mobility, shift in traditional Distribution of power, and a federation of ‘backward castes’ Into a large conglomeration.  Vokkaliga Sangha: The Vokkaliga Sangha in Mysore launched an anti-brahmin Movement in 1905.  Justice Movement: This movement in Madras Presidency was started by CN Mudaliar, TM Nair, and P Tyagaraja to secure jobs and Representation for the non-brahmins in the legislature. In 1917, Madras Presidency Association was formed which Demanded separate representation for the lower castes in the Legislature.  Self-Respect Movement: This movement was started by EV Ramaswamy Naicker, a Balija Naidu, in the mid-1920s. The movement aimed at Nothing short of a rejection of the brahminical religion and Culture which Naicker felt was the prime instrument of Exploitation of the lower castes. He sought to undermine the Position of brahmin priests by formalising weddings without Brahmin priests.  Temple Entry Movement: Significant work in this direction had already been done by Reformers and intellectuals like Sree Narayana Guru and N Kumaran Asan. TK  Madhavan, a prominent social reformer And editor of Deshabhimani, took up the issue of temple Entry with the Travancore administration. Nothing transpired. In the meanwhile, Vaikom, in the northern part of Travancore, Became a centre of agitation for temple entry. In 1924, the Vaikom Satyagraha, led by KP Kesava, was launched in Kerala demanding the throwing open of Hindu temples and Roads to the untouchables. The satyagraha was reinforced by Jathas from Punjab and Madurai. Gandhi undertook a tour Of Kerala in support of the movement. Again, in 1931, when the Civil Disobedience Movement Was suspended, temple entry movement was organised in Kerala. Inspired by K Kelappan, poet Subramaniyam Tirumambu (the ‘singing sword of Kerala’) led a group of 16 volunteers to Guruvayur. Leaders like P  Krishna Pillai And AK  Gopalan were among the satyagrahis. Finally, on November 12, 1936, the Maharaja of Travancore issued a Proclamation throwing open all government-controlled Temples to all Hindus. A similar step was taken by the C Rajagopalachari Administration in Madras in 1938.  Indian Social Conference: Founded by MG Ranade and Raghunath Rao, the Indian Social Conference met annually from its first session in Madras in 1887 at the same time and venue as the Indian National Congress. It focused attention on the social issues Of importance; it could be called the social reform cell of The Indian National Congress, in fact. The conference advocated Inter-caste marriages, opposed polygamy and kulinism. It Launched the ‘Pledge Movement’ to inspire people to take A pledge against child marriage.  Wahabi/Walliullah Movement: The teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and the preachings Of Shah Walliullah (1702–63) inspired this essentially Revivalist response to Western influences and the degeneration Which had set in among Indian Muslims and called for a return To the true spirit of Islam. He was the first Indian Muslim Leader of the 18th century to organise Muslims around the Two-fold ideals of this movement:  desirability of harmony Among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence which had Divided the Indian Muslims (he sought to integrate the best Elements of the four schools);  recognition of the role Of individual conscience in religion where conflicting Interpretations were derived from the Quran and the Hadis. The teachings of Walliullah were further popularised By Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmad Barelvi who also gave Them a political perspective. Un-Islamic practices that had Crept into Muslim society were sought to be eliminated. Syed Ahmad called for a return to the pure Islam and the kind of Society that had existed in the Arabia of the Prophet’s time. India was considered to be dar-ul-Harb (land of the kafirs), And it needed to be converted to dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam). Initially, the movement was directed at the Sikhs in Punjab, But after the British annexation of Punjab (1849), the Movement was directed against the British. During the 1857 Revolt, the Wahabi’s played an important role in spreading Anti-British feelings. The Wahabi Movement fizzled out in The face of British military might in the 1870s.  Titu Mir’s Movement: Syed Mir Nisar Ali, popularly known as Titu Mir, was a Disciple of Syed Ahmad Barelvi (of Rae Bareilly), an adherent Of the Wahabi movement. Titu Mir adopted Wahabism and Advocated the Sharia. He organised the Muslim peasants of Bengal against the landlords, who were mosly Hindu, and the British indigo planters. The movement was not as militant As the British records made it out to be; only in the last year Of Titu’s life was there a confrontation between him and The British police. He was killed in action in 1831.  Faraizi Movement: The movement, also called the Fara’idi Movement because Of its emphasis on the Islamic pillars of faith, was founded By Haji Shariatullah in 1819. Its scene of action was East Bengal, and it aimed at the eradication of social innovations Or un-Islamic practices current among the Muslims of the Region and draw their attention to their duties as Muslims. Under the leadership of Haji’s son, Dudu Mian, the movement Became revolutionary from 1840 onwards. He gave the Movement an organisational system from the village to the Provincial level with a khalifa or authorised deputy at every Level. The Fara’idis organised a paramilitary force armed with Clubs to fight the zamindars who were mostly Hindu, though There were some Muslim landlords too, besides the indigo Planters. Dudu Mian asked his followers not to pay rent. The Organisation even established its own law courts. Dudu Mian was arrested several times, and his arrest In 1847 finally weakened the movement. The movement Survived merely as a religious movement without political Overtones after the death of Dudu Mian in 1862.  Ahmadiyya Movement: The Ahmadiyya forms a sect of Islam which originated from India. It was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889. It Was based on liberal principles. It described itself as the Standard-bearer of Mohammedan Renaissance, and based Itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of universal Religion of all humanity, opposing jihad (sacred war against Non-Muslims). The movement spread Western liberal education Among the Indian Muslims. The Ahmadiyya community is the Only Islamic sect to believe that the Messiah had come in The person of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to end religious wars And bloodshed and to reinstate morality, peace, and justice. They believed in separating the mosque from the State as Well as in human rights and tolerance. However, the Ahmadiyya Movement, like Baha’ism which flourished in the West Asian Countries, suffered from mysticism.  Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement: The British view on the revolt of 1857 held the Muslims To be the main conspirators. This view was further strengthened By the activities of the Wahabis. But later, an opinion got Currency among the rulers that the Muslims could be used As allies against a rising tide of nationalist political activity Represented, among others, by the foundation of the Indian National Congress. This was to be achieved through offers Of thoughtful concessions to the Muslims. A section of Muslims led by Syed Ahmed Khan (1817–98) was ready to Allow the official patronage to stimulate a process of growth Among Indian Muslims through better education and Employment opportunities. Syed Ahmed Khan, born in a respectable Muslim Family, was a loyalist member of the judicial service of the British government. After retirement in 1876, he became a Member of the Imperial Legislative Council in 1878. His Loyalty earned him a knighthood in 1888. He wanted to Reconcile Western scientific education with the teachings of The Quran, which were to be interpreted in the light of Contemporary rationalism and science even though he also Held the Quran to be the ultimate authority. He said that Religion should be adaptable with time or else it would Become fossilised, and that religious tenets were not Immutable. He advocated a critical approach and freedom of Thought and not complete dependence on tradition or custom. He was also a zealous educationist—as an official, he opened Schools in towns, got books translated into Urdu, and started The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (later, the Aligarh Muslim University) at Aligarh in 1875. He also struggled to Bring about an improvement in the position of women through Better education and by opposing purdah and polygamy, Advocating easy divorce, and condemning the system of piri And muridi. He believed in the fundamental underlying unity Of religions or ‘practical morality’. He also preached the Basic commonality of Hindu and Muslim interests. Syed Ahmed Khan argued that Muslims should first Concentrate on education and jobs and try ;to catch up with Their Hindu counterparts who had gained the advantage of an Early start. Active participation in politics at that point, he Felt, would invite hostility of the government towards the Muslim masses. Therefore, he opposed political activity by The Muslims. Unfortunately, in his enthusiasm to promote The educational and employment interests of the Muslims, He allowed himself to be used by the colonial government In its obnoxious policy of divide and rule and, in later years, Started propagating divergence of interests of Hindus and Muslims. Syed’s progressive social ideas were propagated through His magazine Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq (Improvement of Manners And Morals). The Aligarh Movement emerged as a liberal, modern Trend among the Muslim intelligentsia based in Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh. It aimed at spreading: (i) Modern education among Indian Muslims without weakening Their allegiance to Islam; (ii) social reforms among Muslims Relating to purdah, polygamy, widow remarriage, women’s Education, slavery, divorce, etc. The ideology of the followers Of the movement was based on a liberal interpretation of the Quran and they sought to harmonise Islam with modern Liberal culture. They wanted to impart a distinct socio-cultural Identity to Muslims on modern lines. Soon, Aligarh became The centre of religious and cultural revival of the Muslim Community.  The Deoband School (Darul Uloom): The Deoband Movement was organised by the orthodox Section among the Muslim ulema as a revivalist movement With the twin objectives of propagating pure teachings of the Quran and Hadis among Muslims and keeping alive the spirit Of jihad against the foreign rulers. The Deoband Movement was begun at the Darul Uloom (or Islamic academic centre), Deoband, in Saharanpur district (United Provinces) in 1866 by Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi (1832–80) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi (1828–1905) to train Religious leaders for the Muslim ‘community. In contrast to The Aligarh Movement, which aimed at the welfare of Muslims through Western education and support of the British government, the aim of the Deoband Movement was Moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community. The instruction imparted at Deoband was in original Islamic Religion. On the political front, the Deoband school welcomed The formation of the Indian National Congress and in 1888 Issued a fatwa (religious decree) against Syed Ahmed Khan’s Organisations, the United Patriotic Association and the Mohammaden Anglo-Oriental Association. Some critics Attribute Deoband’s support to the nationalists more to its Determined opposition to Syed Ahmed Khan than to any Positive political philosophy. Mahmud-ul-Hasan, the new Deoband leader, gave a Political and intellectual content to the religious ideas of the School. He worked out a synthesis of Islamic principles and Nationalist aspirations. The Jamiat-ul-Ulema gave a concrete Shape to Hasan’s ideas of protection of the religious and Political rights of the Muslims in the overall context of Indian Unity and national objectives. Shibli Numani, a supporter of the Deoband school, Favoured the inclusion of English language and European Sciences in the system of education. He founded the Nadwatal Ulama and Darul Uloom in Lucknow in 1894–96. He Believed in the idealism of the Congress and cooperation Between the Muslims and the Hindus of India to create a state In which both could live amicably.  Parsi Reform Movements: The Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) was founded in 1851 by a group of English- Educated Parsis for the “regeneration of the social conditions Of the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion To its pristine purity”. The movement had Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, KR  Cama, and SS Bengalee as its Leaders. The message of reform was spread by the newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller). Parsi religious rituals and practices Were reformed and the Parsi creed redefined. In the social Sphere, attempts were made to uplift the status of Parsi Women through removal of the purdah system, raising the Age of marriage and education. Gradually, the Parsis emerged As the most westernised section of the Indian society.  Sikh Reform Movements: The Sikh community could not remain untouched by the Rising tide of rationalist and progressive ideas of the 19th Century. The Singh Sabha Movement was founded at Amritsar In 1873 with a two-fold objective: (i) to make available Modern western education to the Sikhs, and (ii) to counter The proselytising activities of Christian missionaries as well As the Brahmo Samajists, Arya Samajists, and Muslim maulvis. For the first objective, a network of Khalsa schools was Established by the Sabha throughout Punjab. In the second Direction, everything that went against the Gurus’ teachings Was rejected, and rites and customs considered to be Consistent with Sikh doctrine were sought to be established. The Akali Movement (also known as Gurudwara Reform Movement) was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement. It aimed at liberating the Sikh gurudwaras from The control of corrupt Udasi mahants (the post having become Hereditary). These mahants were a loyalist and reactionary Lot, enjoying government patronage. The government tried its Repressive policies against the non-violent non-cooperation Satyagraha launched by the Akalis in 1921, but had to bow Before popular demands; it passed the Sikh Gurudwaras Act In 1922 (amended in 1925) which gave the control of Gurudwaras to the Sikh masses to be administered through Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) as the Apex body. The Akali Movement was a regional movement but not A communal one. The Akali leaders played a notable role in The national liberation struggle though some dissenting voices Were heard occasionally.  The Theosophical Movement: A group of westerners led by Madame HP Blavatsky (1831– 91) and Colonel MS Olcott, who were inspired by Indian Thought and culture, founded the Theosophical Society in New York City, United States in 1875. In 1882, they shifted Their headquarters to Adyar, on the outskirts of Madras (at That time) in India. The society believed that a special Relationship could be established between a person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer, revelation, etc. It accepted the Hindu beliefs in reincarnation and karma, and drew inspiration From the philosophy of the Upanishads and samkhya, yoga, And Vedanta schools of thought. It aimed to work for Universal brotherhood of humanity without distinction of Race, creed, sex, caste, or colour. The society also sought To investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the powers Latent in man. The Theosophical Movement came to be allied With the Hindu renaissance. (At one time it allied with the Arya Samaj too.) It opposed child marriage and advocated The abolition of caste discrimination, uplift of and improvement In the condition of widows. In India, the movement became somewhat popular with The election of Annie Besant (1847–1933) as its president After the death of Olcott in 1907. Annie Besant had come To India in 1893. She laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College in Benaras in 1898 where both Hindu religion and Western scientific subjects were taught. The college became The nucleus for the formation of Benaras Hindu University In 1916. Annie Besant also did much for the cause of the Education of women. The Theosophical Society provided a common denomi- Nator for the various sects and fulfilled the urge of educated Hindus. However, to an average Indian, the Theosophist Philosophy seemed to be vague and lacking a positive Programme; to that extent, its impact was limited to a small Segment of the westernised class. As religious revivalists, the Theosophists did not attain much success, but as a movement Of westerners glorifying Indian religious and philosophical Traditions, it gave much-needed self-respect to the Indians Fighting British colonial rule. Viewed from another angle, the Theosophists also had the effect of giving a false sense of Pride to the Indians in their outdated and sometimes backward- Looking traditions and philosophy. Significance of Reform Movements:  Positive Aspects: The orthodox sections of society could not accept the Scientific ideological onslaught of the socio-religious rebels. As a result of this, the reformers were subjected to abuse, Persecution, issuing of fatwas, and even assassination attempts By the reactionaries. However, in spite of opposition, these movements Managed to contribute towards the liberation of the individual From the conformity born out of fear and from uncritical Submission to exploitation by the priests and other classes. The translation of religious texts into vernacular languages, Emphasis on an individual’s right to interpret the scriptures, And simplification of rituals made worship a more personal Experience. The movements emphasised the human intellect’s Capacity to think and reason. By weeding out corrupt elements, religious beliefs and Practices, the reformers enabled their followers to meet the Official taunt that their religions and society were decadent And inferior. The reform movements gave the rising middle classes The much-needed cultural roots to cling to, and served the Purpose of reducing the sense of humiliation which the Conquest by a foreign power had produced. A realisation of the special needs of modern times, Especially in terms of scientific knowledge, and thus promoting A modern, this-worldly, secular, and rational outlook was a Major contribution of these reform movements. Socially, this Attitude reflected in a basic change in the notions of ‘pollution and purity’. Although traditional values and customs Were a prominent target of attack from the reformers, yet The reformers aimed at modernisation rather than outright Westernisation based on blind imitation of alien Western Cultural values. In fact, the reform movements sought to Create a favourable social climate for modernisation. To that Extent, these movements ended India’s cultural and intellectual Isolation from the rest of the world. The reformers argued That modern ideas and culture could be best imbibed by Integrating them into Indian cultural streams. The underlying concern of these reformist efforts was Revival of the native cultural personality which had got Distorted by various factors over the years. This cultural Ideological struggle was to prove to be an important instrument In the evolution of national consciousness and a part of Indian National resolve to resist colonial cultural and ideological Hegemony. However, not all these progressive, nationalist Tendencies were able to outgrow the sectarian and obscurantist Outlook. This was possibly due to the divergent duality of Cultural and political struggles, resulting in cultural Backwardness despite political advancement.  Negative Aspects: One of the major limitations of the religious reform Movements was that they had a narrow social base, namely The educated and urban middle classes, while the needs of The vast masses of peasantry and the urban poor were ignored. The tendency of reformers to appeal to the greatness Of the past and to rely on scriptural authority encouraged Mysticism in new garbs and fostered pseudo-scientific thinking While exercising a check on the full acceptance of the need For a modern scientific outlook. But, above all, these Tendencies contributed, at least to some extent, in Compartmentalising Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and Parsis, as Also alienating high-caste Hindus from low-caste Hindus. The emphasis on religious and philosophical aspects of The cultural heritage got somewhat magnified by an insufficient Emphasis on other aspects of culture—art, architecture, Literature, music, science, and technology. To make matters Worse, the Hindu reformers confined their praise of the Indian past to its ancient period and looked upon the medieval Period of Indian history, essentially as an era of decadence. This tended to create a notion of two separate peoples, on The one hand; on the other, an uncritical praise of the past Was not acceptable to the low-caste sections of society which Had suffered under religiously sanctioned exploitation during The ancient period. Moreover, the past itself tended to be Placed into compartments on a partisan basis. Many in the Muslim middle classes went to the extent of turning to the History of West Asia for their traditions and moments of Pride. The process of evolution of a composite culture which Was evident throughout Indian history showed signs of being Arrested with the rise of another form of consciousness— Communal consciousness—along with national consciousness Among the middle classes. Many other factors were certainly responsible for the Birth of communalism in modern times, but, undoubtedly, the Nature of religious reform movements also contributed to it. On the whole, however, whatever the net outcome of These reform movements, it was out of this struggle that a New society evolved in India. View of H C E Zacharias: Raja Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj form the starting Point for all the various reform movements—whether in Hindu Religion, society or politics—which have agitated modern India. Views of  Raja Rammohan Roy: I regret to say that the present system of religion adhered to by The Hindus is not well calculated to promote their political Interests…. It is, I think, necessary that some change should take Place in their religion at least for the sake of their political Advantage and social comfort. Views of —Keshab Chandra Sen: Whoever worships the True God daily must learn to recognise all His fellow countrymen as brethren. Views of Swami Vivekananda: No other religion preaches the dignity of humanity in such a lofty Strain as Hinduism and no other religion on earth treads upon the Poor and the low in such a fashion as Hinduism. A country where millions have nothing to eat and where few Thousand holy men and brahmins suck the blood of the poor and Do nothing at all for them, is not a country but a living hell. Is This religion or a dance of ddeath/ Forget not that the lower classes, the ignorant, the poor, the Illiterate, the cobbler, the sweeper are thy flesh and blood, thy Brothers.  View of —Subash Chandra Bose: So far as Bengal is concerned Vivekananda may be regarded As the spiritual father of the modern nationalist movement. Summary:  Reform Movements: Among Hindus and for Depressed classes,  Bengal: Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj, Debendranath Tagore and Tattvabodhini Sabha, Keshub Chandra Sen and Brahmo Samaj of India, Prarthana Samaj, Derozio and Young Bengal Movement, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.  Western India: Bal Shastri Jambekar, Students’ Literary and Scientific Societies, Paramhansa Mandalis, Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodhak Samaj, Gopal Walangkar, Kisan Faguji Bansod, Vitthal Ramji Shinde, Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Servants of India Society.  Southern India: Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Movement, Vokkaliga Sangha, Justice Movement, Self-respect Movement, Temple Entry Movement.  All India Ramakrishna Movement and Vivekananda, Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj, Theosophical Movement.  Among Muslims: Wahabi/Walliullah Movement, Ahmadiyya Movement, Syed Ahmed Khan and Aligarh Movement, Deoband Movement.  Among Parsis: Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha. Among Sikhs: Singh Sabha Movement, Akali Movement.  Positive Aspects: Liberation of individual from conformity out of fear psychosis. Worship made a more personal affair Cultural roots to the middle classes—thus mitigating the Sense of humiliation; much needed self-respect gained Fostered secular outlook Encouraged social climate for modernisation Ended India’s cultural, intellectual isolation from rest of the World Evolution of national consciousness Negative Aspects: Narrow social base, Indirectly encouraged mysticism, Overemphasis on religious, philosophical aspects of culture While underemphasising secular and moral aspects Hindus confined their praise to ancient Indian history and Muslims to medieval history—created a notion of two separate Peoples and increased communal consciousness Historical process of evolution of composite culture arrested To some extent.